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A&P I Chap 29
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define development: | gradual modification of anatomical structures and physiological characteristics from fertilization to maturity |
| Define inheritance: | transfer of genetic material from generation to generation |
| Define prenatal period: | begins at conception and ends at birth |
| Define postnatal period: | begins at birth and ends at death |
| Define diploid: | human cells contain 46 chromosomes, 23 pair each |
| Define haploid: | possessing half the normal number of chromosomes, twice as many chromosomes as is normal |
| list the phases of meiosis (I and II): 2 cell divisions, Meosis I and II (both have prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase) | know major events: Interphase before meiosis I, DNA molecules replicate and become pairs of chromatids attached to the centromere, metaphase I has crossover |
| define crossing over: | chromatid segment of each chromosome crosses over and becomes part of the adjacent chromosome in the pair. Helps give variety, reshuffles the genes, exchange of genetic material. |
| Spermatogenesis produces | 4 functional spermatozoa – each with 23 chromosomes |
| Oogenesis produces | 1 functional ovum and 3 non functional polar bodies – each with 23 chromosomes |
| Define zygote: | mature fertilized ovum |
| What 2 processes are involved in bringing 2 gametes together so that fertilization can take place? | Ovulation and insemination. Ovulation: Expulsion of the mature ovum from the mature follicle into the abdominopelvic cavity From there, it enters the fallopian tubes.Insemination: Expulsion of seminal fluid.. |
| Ovulation | expulsion of the mature ovum from the mature ovarian follicle into the abdominopelvic cavity, from there it enters the uterine or fallopian tubes |
| Insemination | expulsion of seminal fluid from the male urethra into the female vagina, several million sperm enter female reproductive tract with each ejaculation of semen. |
| Define fertilization: | conception |
| Where does fertilization generally take place? | Outer 1/3 of the uterine tubes |
| In what way does the ovum contribute to the success of fertilization? | Chemotaxis: special peptides attract the sperm |
| Define fertilization membrane: | thick film becomes an impenetrable layer and describe its function, causes vesicle just inside ovum’s plasma membrane to release enzymes that inactivate sperm receptors on zona pellucida |
| Define embryology: | science of development of individual before birth |
| Define morula: | a solid mass of cells |
| Define blastocyst: | hollow balls of cells |
| Know the different structures of the blastocyst | Know the different structures of the blastocyst= Blastocyst consists of an outer layer of cells and an inner cell mass. Trophoblast: outer wall of blastocyst. As blastocyst develops further, inner cell mass forms a structure with 2 cavities:Yolk sac and A |
| List the main functions of the placenta | Structural “anchor”, Nutritive bridge, Excretory, respiratory, and endocrine organ. |
| What hormone do “early pregnancy” tests detect? | hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) |
| define gestation period: | length of pregnancy (about 39 weeks), divides into 3 trimesters |
| by the 4 months of pregnancy | all of the organ systems of the baby are formed and functioning to some extent |
| define stem cells: | specialized cells that reproduce to form specific lines of specialized cells, they have the highest “stemness” or potency, capable of producing many kinds of cells in the body. |
| define totipotent: | single cell of the zygote, “totally potent”, |
| pluripotent: | cells that can produce many (but not all) kinds of cells, and |
| multipotent: | can only produce a few types of cells |
| cells from embryonic disk form the 3 germ layers: | endoderm: inside layer, ectoderm: outside layer, mesoderm: middle layer. |
| know 1 structure that each different germ layers eventually forms: | Endoderm: forms lining of various tracts, lining of respiratory, GI, and urinary tracts, lining of pancreatic and hepatic ducts. |
| know 1 structure that each different germ layers eventually forms:Ectoderm: | outer germ layer, forms structures around periphery of the body: epidermis of the skin, enamel of the teeth, cornea and lens of the eye. |
| know 1 structure that each different germ layers eventually forms: Mesoderm | middle germ layer, forms most of the organs dermis of skin, skeletal muscles, many glands of the body, kidneys, gonads, components of circulatory system |
| define histogenesis: | process by which primary germ layers develop into different kinds of tissues |
| define organogenesis: | process of how tissues arrange themselves into organs |
| define birth or parturition: | point of transition between the prenatal and postnatal periods of life, fetus signals end of pregnancy |
| what is the function of oxytocin in birth? | Amplifies rate and strength of labor contractions, can stimulate labor contractions in a difficult or delayed delivery |
| What is the difference between identical: | result from splitting of embryonic tissue from the same zygote early in development, have the same genetic code because they are formed from the same fertilized egg |
| What is the diff… fraternal twins: | result from fertilization of 2 different ova and 2 different spermatozoa, can have the same father or two different fathers, it requires production of more than 1 mature ovum |
| List the 4 most common postnatal periods | Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence and adulthood, Older adulthood. |
| Define the apgar score: | system that scores 5 health criteria to assess the general condition of a newborn: heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, skin color, response to stimuli, each is scored from 0-2, a complete healthy newborn will score a 10. |
| Define puberty: | stage of adolescence in which a person becomes sexually mature |
| Define gerontology: | study of aging |
| List the causes of aging discussed in class | Nutrition, Injury, Disease, Environmental factors, “aging” viruses, “aging” genes, Mitochondria lose ability to make ATP, Free radical formation. |
| List 1 change that occurs in the skeletal system during the aging process: | bones no longer have clean-cut margins, restricts movement because of piling up of bone tissue around joints, reduces bone mineral density, bone loss like osteoporosis |
| List 1 change that occurs in the muscular system during the aging process: | people lose muscle mass with age, loss of fiber, muscle fibers develop into slower type of fibers |
| List 1 change that occurs in the integumentary system during the aging process: | skin becomes dry, thin, and inelastic, sags on the body, increased wrinkling and skinfolds, pigmentation changes, hair thins or is lost. |
| List 1 change that occurs in the urinary system during the aging process: | nephrons in kidneys decreases to almost 50%, blood flow decreases to kidneys, muscle tone is lost in the bladder |
| List 1 change that occurs in the respiratory system during the aging process: | costal cartilages become hardened or calcified, makes it difficult for rib cage to expand and contract as it does in inspiration and expiration |
| List 1 change that occurs in the cardiovascular system during the aging process: | fatty deposits build up in blood vessels walls, narrows passage for blood, astherosclerosis: can lead to eventual blockage of coronary arteries and myocardial infarcation results, hypertension: high blood pressure, hardening of arteries: arteriosclerosis |
| List 1 change that occurs in the special senses during the aging process: | presbyopia-old eye, impaired vision, glaucoma causes an increase in pressure within the eyeball and can result into blindness if left untreated. Sense of taste decrease, loss of appetite, |
| List 1 change that occurs in the reproductive system during the aging process: | women experience menopause, men erection may become more difficult to achieve and maintain, urgency for sex may decline (decreases libido), lubrication of vagina may decrease |
| List the benefits of aging (the ones I would like for you to know are listed here) | Less anxiety and hostility, More control over fear, Less resistance to happiness, Accumulation of learning, Increased wisdom. |
| Define genotype: | chromosomes and their paired genes, contain unique instruction that determine anatomical and physiological characteristics, derived from genotypes and parents |
| Define phenotype: | physical expression of genotype, anatomical and physiological characteristics |
| Define autosomal chromosomes: | most affected somatic characteristics, each chromosome in pair has same structure and carries genes that affect same traits |
| How many pairs of autosomal chromosomes type of chromosomes do humans have? | 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes |
| Define sex chromosomes: | last pair of chromosomes, determine whether individuals is genetically male or female |
| How many pairs of sex chromosomes do humans have? | 23 pairs |
| Define karyotpe: | entire set of chromosomes |
| Define locus: | Gene’s position on chromosome |
| Define allele: | various forms of given gene, alternate forms determine precise effect of gene on phenotype |
| Define homozygous: | both homologous chromosomes carry same allele of particular gene and heterozygous: homologous chromosomes carry different allele of particular gene, resulting phenotype depends on nature of interaction between alleles |
| Define punnett square: | simple box diagram used to predict characteristics |
| Define genetic recombination: | during meiosis, various changes can occur in chromosome structure, producing gametes with chromosomes that differ to those of each parent |
| What are the two types discussed? Crossing over: | chromosomes become rearranged during synapsis, |
| translocation: | reshuffling process, genomic imprinting: portions of chromosomes may break away and be deleted, chromosomal abnoramilties: damaged, broken, missing, or extra copies of chromosomes |
| Define ectopic pregnancies: | improper implantation outside the normal location and tubal pregnancies: implant in uterine tube, do not have enough room to grow |
| Define placenta previa: | occurs when blastocyst implants close to cervix and placenta grows too close to cervical opening |
| Define abruptio placentae: | in a pregnancy of 20 or more weeks along, when implantation occurs in the upper part of uterus, placenta can separate from uterine wall |
| Define pregnancy-induced hypertension: | woman’s blood pressure often rises and stays elevated until the end of pregnancy and preeclampsia: acute hypertension, proteinuria and edema |
| Define miscarriage: | loss of embryo or fetus before the 20th week, spontaneous abortion and stillbirth: loss of baby after 20 weeks, delivery of a lifeless baby |
| Define congenital abnormalities: | any structural or functional abnormality present at birth and |
| teratogens: | acquired effects are caused by disrupt normal histogenesis and organogenesis, chemical, microbes, radiation, smoking, alcohold |
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