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Pre-AP World History
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| AD | anno Domini (“In the year of our Lord”) |
| BC | Before Christ |
| BCE | Before Common Era |
| CE | Common Era |
| Primary Source | Provides a first hand account of the event |
| Secondary Source | Account of the past created by people who are not first-hand witness of the event |
| Acculturation | the process where one may give up his/her own culture and take on the values of another culture |
| Culture | the set of learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals that are characteristic of a particular society or population |
| Cultural Change | when a new idea (or invention) is accepted and begins being used by others in the culture |
| Cultural Diffusion | when a new idea (or invention) spreads to another culture |
| Cultural Lag | when there are barriers and new ideas haven’t reached other places yet. The time it takes for an idea to spread |
| Culture Shock | being unable to deal with another culture |
| Empathy (Cultural Relativity) | understanding the feelings, customs, or actions by others by looking at things from their point of view |
| Enculturation/Socialization | the process of learning one’s culture |
| Ethnocentrism | examining other cultures from your own point of view |
| Ethnography | written account of a culture by an anthropologist |
| Invention | a new way of doing something |
| Inventor / Change Agent | a person who creates a new way of doing something Tend to be young, bright, gutsy, and a bit of an outsider (different frame of reference, not the old mindset) |
| Archipelago (Ex: Hawaii and Japan) | a chain of islands |
| Delta (Ex: Nile delta in the Mediterranean Sea) | a triangular tract of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river, typically where it diverges into several outlets |
| Hemisphere | a half of the earth, usually as divided into northern and southern halves by the equator, or into western and eastern halves by an imaginary line passing through the poles |
| Isthmus (Ex: Panama) | a narrow strip of land with sea on either side, forming a link between two larger areas of land |
| Latitude | the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth's equator |
| Longitude | the angular distance of a place east or west of the meridian |
| Peninsula (Ex: Cape Cod, Iberian Peninsula) | a piece of land almost surrounded by water or projecting out into a body of water |
| Plain (Ex: Atlantic Coastal Plains and Serengeti Plains) | a large area of flat land with few trees |
| Plateau (Ex: Tibetan Plateau and Grand Canyon) | an area of relatively level high ground |
| Savanna (Ex: Southeast Australia Temperate Savanna, Argentine Espinal) | a grassy plain in tropical and subtropical regions, with few trees |
| Steppe (Ex: The Eurasian Steppe) | a large area of flat unforested grassland |
| Strait (Ex: Strait of Gibraltar, The Bosporus, The Strait of Hormuz) | a narrow passage of water connecting two seas or two large areas of water |
| Anthropology | study of the origins and development of people in their societies |
| Archaeology | the study of people and cultures through material remains |
| Artifact | an object made by human beings |
| Historian | a person who studies how people lived in the past |
| Olduvai Gorge | Located in eastern Africa, the gorge is made up of numerous sedimentary layers of ash and lava deposited over millions of years |
| Prehistory | the period of time before writing was invented |
| Technology | the skills and tools people use to meet their basic needs |
| Donald Johanson | Born in 1942, anthropologist Donald Johanson found one of the most important early humans in history, a skeleton of a woman “Lucy.” |
| Louis Leakey | (1903–1972) Archaeologist, Louis Leakey, and his wife, Mary, searched for the remains of early humans in East Africa, finding many tools and bones that increased our understanding of early humans. |
| Mary Leakey | (1913–1996) Anthropologist, born in London, England, Mary Leakey married Louis Leakey in 1936 and they spent 30 years digging for early humans in East Africa. Found many remains that have increased our understanding of early hominids. |
| “Lucy” | In Ethiopia, Johanson found a complete skeleton, which was dated to at least 3 million years ago. Studying Lucy’s skeleton, Johanson could see that she was an upright walker who was about 4 feet (1.2 meters) tall |
| Animism | the belief that spirits and forces live within animals, objects, or dreams |
| Catal Huyuk (Çatalhöyük) | one of the world’s first villages, established in modern |
| Domesticate | to tame animals and adapt crops so they can be used by humans |
| Jericho | the world’s first village, established in the modern |
| Neolithic Period | the final era of prehistory, which began about 9000 B.C.; also called the New Stone Age |
| Neolithic Revolution | the period of time during which the introduction of agriculture led people to transition from nomadic to settled life |
| New Stone Age | the final era of prehistory, which began about 9000 B.C.; also called the Neolithic Period |
| Nomad | a person who moves from place to place in search of food |
| Old Stone Age | the era of prehistory that lasted from 2 million B.C. to about 9000 B.C |
| Paleolithic Period | the era of prehistory that lasted from at least 2 million b.c. to about 9000 B.C.; also called the Old Stone Age |
| Surplus | an amount that is more than needed; excess |
| Artisan | a skilled craftsperson |
| City-State | political unit that includes a city and surrounding lands and villages |
| Civilization | an advanced stage of human society marked by a well-organized government and high levels of culture, science, and industry |
| Empire | a group of states or territories controlled by one ruler |
| Pictograph | a simple drawing that looks like the object it represents |
| Polytheistic | believing in many gods |
| Scribe | in ancient civilizations, a person specially trained to read, write, and keep records |
| Traditional Economy | economy that relies on habit, custom, or ritual and tends not to change over time OR undeveloped economic systems that rely on custom and tradition |
| Cuneiform | in the ancient Middle East, a system of writing that used wedge |
| Epic of Gilgamesh | Mesopotamian narrative poem that was first told in Sumer |
| Fertile Crescent | region of the Middle East in which civilizations first arose |
| Hierarchy | system of ranking groups |
| Mesopotamia | region within the Fertile Crescent that lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers |
| Sumer | site of the world’s first civilization, located in southeastern Mesopotamia |
| Ziggurat | in ancient Mesopotamia, a large, stepped platform thought to have been topped by a temple dedicated to a city |
| Alphabet | writing system in which each symbol represents a single basic sound |
| Barter Economy | economic system in which one set of goods or services is exchanged for another |
| Bureaucracy | system of government through departments and subdivisions administered by officials who follow set rules |
| Codify | to arrange or set down in writing |
| Civil Law | branch of law that deals with private rights and matters |
| Criminal Law | branch of law that deals with offenses against others |
| Colony | territory settled and ruled by people from another land |
| Money Economy | economic system in which goods or services are paid for through the exchange of a token of an agreed value |
| Hammurabi | (1792 B.C.–1750 B.C.) Hammurabi became the first king of the Babylonian empire. He inherited the power from his father, who extended Babylon’s control across Mesopotamia. Hammurabi is known for writing the first code of law in recorded history |
| Nebuchadnezzar | the king of the Babylonian empire from 605 B.C. to 562 B.C. He led several military campaigns, which expanded the empire to Aramea, Judah, and other cities. He rebuilt the city of Babylon and is credited with the construction of the famous Hanging Gardens |
| Sargon | The exact dates of King Sargon’s birth and death are unknown, but according to Sumerian historians, he reigned from 2334 B.C. to 2279 B.C. He is known for creating the first empire in Mesopotamia |
| Zoroaster | an Iranian religious reformer and founder of Zoroastrianism. He emphasized individual freedom to choose right or wrong and individual responsibility for one’s actions. Zoroaster’s ideas influenced the early development of philosophy |
| Harappa | large ancient city of the Indus civilization, located in present |
| Mohenjo-Daro | an ancient city of the Indus civilization, located in present-day Pakistan |
| Monsoon | seasonal wind that regularly blows from a certain direction for part of the year |
| Subcontinent | large landmass that juts out from a continent |
| Veneration | special regard |
| Scarcity | to be in short supply; shortage |
| Surplus | to have more than enough; excess |
| Economics | the study of how we manage out scarce resources |
| The Code of Hammurabi | a set of 282 laws inscribed in stone by the Babylonian king Hammurabi |
| Mandate of Heaven | in Chinese history, the divine approval thought to be the basis of royal authority |
| Calligraphy | the art of producing beautiful handwriting |
| Characters | written symbols in writing systems such as that of the Chinese |
| Clan | a group of families with a common ancestor |
| Dynastic Cycle | the rise and fall of Chinese dynasties according to the Mandate of Heaven |
| Feudalism | loosely organized system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other support to a greater lord |
| Filial Piety | respect for parents |
| Loess | Dusty yellowish silt deposited on the banks of the Yellow River after flooding conceded |
| Oracle Bone | in Shang China, animal bone or turtle shell used by priests to predict the future |
| Philosophy | system of ideas |
| Confucious | (551B.C.–479 B.C.) is China’s most famous philosopher. His teachings about the importance of education and public service influenced many eastern Asian civilizations |
| Laozi | Developed a philosophy of inner calm, purity of mind, and living in harmony with nature that is called Dao, or the way of the universe. His book, The Way of Life, had an enormous influence on Chinese life |
| Acupuncture | medical treatment originating in ancient China, in which needles are inserted into the skin at specific points to relieve pain or treat illnesses |
| Civil Servants | government officials |
| Expansionism | policy of increasing the amount of territory a government holds |
| Monopoly | complete control of a product or business by one person or a group |
| Warlords | local military rulers |
| Shi Huangdi | (about 259 B.C.–210 B.C.) the son of the king of the Qin territory. Proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi, or “First Emperor.” Using spies and bribery, he removed the leaders of six other surrounding states to create a unified China under his rule |
| Wudi | the eleventh son of the Han emperor Jingdi. WIth the influence of his relatives he became emperor in 141 b.c. he expanded his dynasty’s rule, though it came at a high cost. Made Confucianism the state religion |
| Dowry | in some societies, payment a bride’s family makes to the bridegroom and his family; payment a woman brings to a marriage |
| Gentry | wealthy, landowning class |
| Land reform | breakup of large agricultural holdings for redistribution among peasants |
| Pagoda | multistoried Buddhist temple with eaves that curve up at the corners |
| Tang Dynasty | Chinese dynasty from 618 to 907. Developed a successful form of government and used land reform which helped government revenues. Also set up schools for males to prepare them for exams |
| Tributary State | independent state that has to acknowledge the supremacy of another state and pay tribute to its ruler |
| Song Dynasty | an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Ten Kingdoms |
| Tang Taizong | (598–649) an accomplished general, government reformer, historian, Confucian scholar, and artist. These qualities and skills helped him to become China’s most admired emperor. |
| Abacus | a device used for counting and calculating by sliding small balls or beads along rods or in grooves |
| Ming Dynasty | Chinese dynasty in which Chinese rule was restored; held power from 1368 to 1644 |
| Yuan Dynasty | Chinese dynasty ruled by the Mongols from 1279 to 1368; best |
| Genghis Khan (1162–1227) | He rose from poverty to unite the warring Mongol tribes and imposed discipline, exacted loyalty, and built an army that conquered the vast areas of Central Asia and China which became the Mongol empire. He was known for his fierceness and his generosity |
| Kublai Khan (1215–1294) Grandson of Genghis Khan | founded the Yuan dynasty, and conquered the Song dynasty for Mongols. Politically reunited China but engaged in wars with neighboring kingdoms. Confucian, and known for his acceptance of religions and for granting economic privileges to favored sects. |
| Marco Polo (c. 1254–1324) | traveler, merchant, and adventurer from Venice who journeyed from Europe to Asia in 1271–95, spending 17 years serving the Mongol emperor Kublai Khan. Polo accounted 'The Travels of Marco Polo' to a fellow prisoner while imprisoned during war with Genoa |
| Zheng He (c. 1371–1433) | admiral in the Ming Chinese navy and diplomat who made his first voyage in 1405 to Vietnam, India, and Africa to both explore and trade. Zheng He motivated Chinese merchants to establish trade centers in Southeast Asia and India |
| China Proper | where most of China's population lives, highest population density (triangle shaped on map) |
| Confucianism | Confucius taught that there were unequal power relationships, but the one with more power had to respect the one with less so they are more inclined to follow. Family was central to this belief and China. It was based on the moral example of leaders. |
| Daoism | associated with Laozi and thought people should go back to nature. Family was still important and females had more/equal power to men |
| Legalism | philosophy that states that the solution to China’s problems lay in rules of law clearly spelled out and strictly enforced. Have a pessimistic view on human nature and only the state could act in the people’s best interest |
| Ban Zhao | (45 - 116 C.E) was a writer in “Lessons for Women”, which called for more education for young girls on how they could better serve their husbands. Education for men was how they could control their wives |
| Acculturation | the blending of two or more cultures |
| Brahman | in the belief system established in Aryan India, a single spiritual power that resides in all things |
| Vedas | a collection of prayers, hymns, and other religious teachings developed in ancient India beginning around 1500 B.C. |
| Ahimsa | Hindu belief in nonviolence and reverence for all life |
| Atman | in Hindu belief, a person’s essential self |
| Caste | in traditional Indian society, an unchangeable social group into which a person is born |
| Dharma | in Hindu belief, the religious and moral duties of an individual |
| Eightfold Path | as taught by the Buddha, the path one must follow to achieve nirvana |
| Four Noble Truths | as taught by the Buddha, the four basic beliefs that form the foundation of Buddhism |
| Karma | in Hindu belief, all the actions that determine a person’s fate in the next life |
| Moksha | in Hindu belief, the ultimate goal of existence, which is to achieve union with Brahman |
| Nirvana | in Buddhist belief, union with the universe and release from the cycle of rebirth |
| Reincarnation | in Hindu belief, the rebirth of the soul in another bodily form |
| Sect | subgroup of a major religious group |
| Siddhartha Gautama (circa 563 b.c. to 483 b.c.) | Indian Prince. Encounters with human suffering led him to seek out cause. Meditated until he developed a spiritual explanation for life. Became known as the “Buddha". Taught the Four Noble Truths and encouraged others to follow the Eightfold Path |
| Decimal System | system of numbers based on 10 |
| Dissent | ideas that oppose those of the government |
| Golden Age | period of great cultural achievement |
| Joint Family | family organization in which several generations share a common dwelling |
| Missionaries | people sent to do religious work in a territory or foreign country |
| Chandragupta Maurya | reigned from about 321 B.C. to 297 B.C. was the first Mauryan emperor. Chandragupta learned military tactics and eventually formed a force strong enough to conquer most of India |
| Asoka | the last major Mauryan emperor in India. Waged lots of brutal wars before becoming a commited Buddhist who helped spread Buddhism through India. His rule was characterized by fairness, compassion, and the principles of right life |
| Fresco | colorful painting completed on wet plaster |
| Knossos | city in ancient Crete, the principle center of Minoan civilization that dominated the Aegean between about 1600 B.C. and 1400 B.C |
| Shrine | altar, chapel, or other sacred place |
| Trojan War | military conflict around 1250 B.C. between Mycenae and Troy, a rich trading city in present |
| Homer | (c. 750 B.C.), according to tradition the author of the epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, is thought to have traveled from village to village singing about heroic deeds of warriors during the Trojan War |
| Acropolis | highest and most fortified point within a Greek city |
| Alliance | formal agreement between two or more nations or powers to cooperate and come to one another’s defense |
| Aristocracy | government headed by a privileged minority or upper class |
| Athens | city-state in ancient Greece that evolved from a monarchy to a limited direct democracy and became famous for its great cultural achievements |
| Citizen | a native or resident of a town or city |
| Direct Democracy | system of government in which citizens participate directly in the day |
| Democracy | government in which the people hold ruling power |
| Jury | group of people with authority to make a decision in a legal case |
| Legislature | lawmaking body |
| Monarchy | government in which a king or queen exercises central power |
| Oligarchy | government in which ruling power belongs to a few people |
| Ostracism | practice used in ancient Greece to banish or send away a public figure who threatened democracy |
| Phalanx | in ancient Greece, a massive tactical formation of heavily armed foot soldiers |
| Polis | city-state in ancient Greece |
| Sparta | city-state in ancient Greece settled by the Dorians and built as a military state |
| Stipend | a fixed salary given to public office holders |
| Tyrant | in ancient Greece, ruler who gained power by force |
| Pericles | (495 B.C.–429 B.C.) was an Athenian statesman in the 400s B.C. who led Athens during its golden age of cultural achievement under democratic government |
| Comedy | in ancient Greece, play that mocked people or social customs |
| Logic | rational thinking |
| Parthenon | the chief temple of the Greek goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, Greece |
| Philosopher | someone who seeks to understand and explain life; a person who studies philosophy |
| Rhetoric | art of skillful speaking |
| Tragedy | in ancient Greece, a play about human suffering often ending in disaster |
| Socrates (469 B.C.–399 B.C.) | an Athenian stonemason and philosopher who sought truth by questioning, as described in dialogues written by Plato. |
| Plato (437 B.C.–347 B.C.) | a student of Socrates, was an Athenian thinker, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens. |
| Aristotle (384 B.C.–322 B.C.) | a student of Plato, philosopher, writer about many branches of knowledge, founder of the Lyceum, and tutor of Alexander the Great |
| Herodotus (c. 484 B.C.–c. 425 B.C.) | often called “Father of History,” traveled widely throughout the ancient Mediterranean world, collecting information for his chronicles of past events, including the Persian wars. In his writings, he noted bias and conflicting accounts in his sources |
| Alexandria | founded in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, became one of the greatest cities of the Mediterranean world. Became known for its size, great markets, huge Pharos lighthouse, and the Museum, a learning center with a famous library |
| Assassination | murder of a public figure, usually for political reasons |
| Assimilate | absorb or adopt another culture |
| Heliocentric | based on the belief that the sun is the center of the universe |
| Alexander the Great (356 B.C.–324 B.C.) | Philip II’s son and Aristotle’s pupil. Conquered the Persian empire, founding new cities as his armies won in Asia Minor, Palestine, and Egypt, and captured Babylon. Continued eastward to India, troops refused to go farther. Died from sudden fever age 32 |
| Archimedes (c. 287 B.C.–c. 212 B.C.) | famous Hellenistic mathematician and inventor from Syracuse, a Greek colony. Known for understanding the principle of levers, discovering relation between the surface and volume of a sphere, and inventing the Archimedes screw, a device for raising water |
| Philip II (359 B.C.–336 B.C.) | restored internal peace to Macedonia, built an effective army, and then formed alliances with many Greek city |
| Pythagoras (570 B.C.–c. 490 B.C.) | a Greek philosopher and mathematician who studied the meaning of numbers and their relationships. Formulated principles that influenced the thinking of Plato and Aristotle, established an academy in Croton (now in Italy). Pythagorean Theorem |
| Apostle | leader or teacher of a new faith or movement |
| Aqueduct | in ancient Rome, underground or bridge-like stone structure that carried water from the hills into the city |
| Bishop | high-ranking Church official with authority over a local area, or diocese |
| Census | population count |
| Christian Bible | the sacred writings of the Christian religion |
| Clergy | the body of people who conduct Christian services |
| Constantinople | the capital of the eastern Roman empire; capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, now called Istanbul ~OR~ the "city of Constantine," the former Greek city of Byzantium located on the Bosporus strait, rebuilt by Constantine and in 330 made the "New R |
| Consul | an official from the patrician class who supervised the government and commanded the armies |
| Covenant | a binding agreement; specifically, in the Jewish tradition, the binding agreement God made with Abraham |
| Diaspora | the spreading of the Jews beyond their historic homeland |
| Dictator | ruler who has complete control over a government |
| Engineering | application of science and mathematics to develop useful structures and machines |
| Etruscans | a people who inhabited early Italy |
| Ethics | moral standards of behavior |
| Heresy | religious belief that is contrary to the official teachings of a church |
| Imperialism | domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region |
| Inflation | economic cycle that involves a rapid rise in prices linked to a sharp increase in the amount of money available |
| Latifundia | huge estates brought up by newly wealthy Roman citizens |
| Legion | basic unit of the ancient Roman army, made up of about 5,000 soldiers |
| Martyr | a person who suffers or dies because of his or her beliefs |
| Mercenaries | soldiers serving in a foreign army for pay |
| Messiah | savior sent by God |
| Monotheistic | believing in one god |
| Mosaic | picture made of chips of colored stone or glass |
| Patriarch | in the Roman and Byzantine empires, the highest church official in a major city |
| Patriarchal | relating to a society in which men hold the greatest legal and moral authority |
| Patrician | a member of the land-holding upper class |
| Plebeian | a member of the class that included farmers, merchants, artisans, and traders |
| Pope | head of the Roman Catholic Church; in ancient Rome, bishop of Rome who claimed authority over all other bishops |
| Prophet | spiritual leader who interprets God’s will |
| Republic | system of government in which officials are chosen by the people |
| Sabbath | a holy day for rest and worship |
| Torah | the most sacred text of the Hebrew Bible, includes the first five books |
| Tribune | an official elected by the plebeians to protect their interests |
| Veto | to block a government action |
| Tiberius (c. 163 B.C.- 133 B.C.) | Roman plebeian who became a tribune and lobbied for government reform. He was killed in 133 B.C. by gangs hired by Roman senators |
| Gaius Gracchus (c. 154 B.C. - 121 B.C.) | the brother of Tiberius and a plebeian political reformist who sought to limit senatorial power. He advanced checks and balances to minimize financial influence. Like his brother, he was murdered by thugs hired by the Roman Senate |
| Julius Caesar (c. 100 B.C. - 44 B.C.) | a Roman general, master of political maneuvers, and a reformist. He advocated for the reorganization of Rome's government. In 47 B.C., he became dictator, and three years later was assassinated |
| Augustus (63 B.C. - 14 C.E.) | the first Roman emperor of the newly established Roman empire. Augustus's rule began a long-lasting period of peace and wealth known as the Pax Romana |
| Hadrian ( A.D. 76 - A.D. 138) | a Roman Emperor from A.D 117 to A.D 138. Considered one of the "Five Good Emperors," he codified Roman law and traveled extensively, uniting the empire |
| Diocletian (A.D. 245 - A.D. 311) | a Roman general who became emperor. To make the government more effective, he divided the large empire into East and West and appointed a co-emperor |
| Constantine (c.A.D.280–A.D.337) | was the first Roman Emperor to become a Christian. During his reign, he prevented the persecution of Christians and helped to strengthen the early church |
| Huns | a nomadic people of central Asia |
| Virgil (70 B.C. - 19 B.C.) | a Roman poet who wrote the Aeneid in 30 B.C.. He studied mathematics and other subjects in Rome and Naples and was inspired by Greek poets |
| Ptolemy (A.D. 100 - A.D. 170) | a Roman astronomer, mathematician, and geographer who incorrectly theorized that Earth is the center of the universe. He lived in Alexandria, Egypt, where he studied the planets and stars and developed a system to explain their movements |
| Hannibal | Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War. Led his troops through the Alps |
| Anti-Semitism | prejudice against Jews |
| Autocrat | ruler who has complete authority |
| Battle of Tours | battle in 732 in which the Christian Franks led by Charles Martel defeated the Muslim armies and stopped the Muslim advance into Europe |
| Benedictine Rule | rules drawn up in 530 by Benedict, a monk, regulating monastic life. The Rule emphasizes obedience, poverty, and chastity and divides the day into periods of worship, work, and study |
| Canon Law | body of laws of a church |
| Chivalry | code of conduct for knights during the Middle Ages |
| Constantinople | the capital of the eastern Roman empire; capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires |
| Excommunication | exclusion from the Roman Catholic Church as a penalty for refusing to obey Church law |
| Feudal Contract | exchange of pledges between lords and vassals |
| Feudalism | loosely organized system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other support to a greater lord |
| Fief | in medieval Europe, an estate granted by a lord to a vassal in exchange for service and loyalty |
| Friar | a medieval European monk who traveled from place to place preaching to the poor |
| Great Schism | the official split between the Roman Catholic and Byzantine churches that occurred in 1054; another event was the Great Western Schism, a period when rival popes fought for exclusive power and divided the Roman Catholic Church from 1378–1417 |
| Icon | holy image of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or a saint venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church |
| Interdict | in the Roman Catholic Church, excommunication of an entire region, town, or kingdom |
| Justinian's Code | collection of Roman laws organized by the Byzantine emperor Justinian and later serving as a model for the Catholic Church and medieval monarchs |
| Knight | a European noble who served as a mounted warrior |
| Magyars | an ethnic group centered in present-day Hungary |
| Manor | during the Middle Ages in Europe, a lord's estate that included one or more villages and the surrounding lands |
| Manor System | also called manorial system; economic system during the Middle Ages in Europe that was built around large estates called manors, which included one or more villages and the surrounding lands |
| Medieval | referring to the Middle Ages in Europe or the period of history between ancient and modern times |
| Papal Supremacy | the claim of medieval popes that they had authority over all secular rulers |
| Sacrament | sacred ritual of the Roman Catholic Church |
| Schism | a split or divide |
| Secular | having to do with worldly, rather than religious, matters; nonreligious |
| Serf | in medieval Europe, a peasant bound to the lord's land |
| Tournament | a mock battle in which knights would compete against one another to display their fighting skills |
| Troubadour | a wandering poet or singer of medieval Europe |
| Usury | the practice of lending money at interest |
| Vassal | in medieval Europe, a lord who was granted land in exchange for service and loyalty to a greater lord |
| Vikings | Scandinavian peoples whose sailors raided Europe from the 700s through the 1100s |
| Charles Martel (688–741) | served as mayor (ruled in name of king) of the palace for the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom. He seized power, eventually reunited, and then ruled the entire kingdom of the Franks. Charles’s cavalry halted the last great Muslim advance into Europe |
| Charlemagne (747–814), (or “Charles the Great”) | King of the Franks, the Lombards, and emperor of the Romans. Strove to unite diverse conquered peoples and cope with threats from invaders. Made efforts to spread Christianity and religious reform, supported cultural renewal through revival of learning |
| Clovis (466–511) | known as the political and religious founder of the kingdom of the Franks. Ruled much of Gaul, kingdom was the most powerful. Also the most important ally of the Byzantine emperor Anastasius I. One of the first Germanic kings to convert to Christianity |
| Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204) | Heiress to the dukedom of Aquitaine, married the French royal heir, Louis VI and became queen of France, married Henry Plantagenet, who became Henry II of England in 1154. Helped administer England, and managed her own domains |
| Justinian (483–565), (Byzantine emperor) | He wanted to win back western Roman provinces from barbarian invaders. Rebuilt Constantinople after riots. Istituted reforms to stop imperial corruption and promote justice for his subjects. Mmost influential achievement is Justinian’s Code |
| St. Francis of Assisi (1181?–1226) | gave up his wealth to "walk in the footsteps" of Jesus. The first Franciscan friars were his followers, and together they lived a life of service to the poor and sick. The Church made him a saint in 1228 |
| Theodora (497–548) | wife of the emperor Justinian and his most trusted advisor. Known for her intelligence and insight, Theodora had much influence in Byzantine politics. Pioneered efforts for women’s rights and revised divorce laws in favor of more benefits to women |
| Gothic style | type of European architecture that developed in the Middle Ages, characterized by flying buttresses, ribbed vaulting, thin walls, and high roofs |
| Guild | in the Middle Ages, an association of merchants or artisans who cooperated to uphold standards of their trade and to protect their economic interests |
| Hajj | one of the Five Pillars of Islam, the pilgrimage that all Muslims are expected to make at least once in their lifetime |
| Hijra | Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina in 622 |
| Holy Land | Jerusalem and other places where Christians believe Jesus had lived and preached |
| Icon | holy image of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or a saint venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church |
| Illumination | the artistic decoration of books and manuscripts |
| Inquisition | a Church court set up to try people accused of heresy |
| Journeyman | a salaried worker employed by a guild master |
| Kaaba | the most sacred temple of Islam, located at Mecca |
| Mecca | a city in western Saudi Arabia; birthplace of Muhammad, viewed by Muslims as the prophet of Islam, and the most holy city for Islamic people |
| Medina | a city in western Saudi Arabia; a city where Muhammad preached |
| Middle class | a group of people, including merchants, traders, and artisans, whose rank was between nobles and peasants |
| Minaret | slender tower of a mosque, from which Muslims are called to prayer |
| Mosque | Muslim house of worship |
| Partnership | a group of merchants who joined together to finance a large-scale venture that would have been too costly for any individual trader |
| Quran | the holy book of Islam |
| Reconquista | During the 1400s, the campaign by European Christians to drive the Muslims from present |
| Scholasticism | in medieval Europe, the school of thought that used logic and reason to support Christian belief |
| Sharia | body of Islamic law that includes interpretation of the Quran and applies Islamic principles to everyday life |
| Shiite | a member of one of the two major Muslim sects; believe that the descendants of Muhammad’s daughter and son-in-law, Ali, are the true Muslim leaders |
| Social mobility | the ability to move in social class |
| Sufi | Muslim mystic who seeks communion with God through meditation, fasting, and other rituals |
| Sultan | Muslim ruler |
| Sunni | a member of one of the largest Muslim sects; believe that inspiration came from the example of Muhammad as recorded by his early followers |
| Tenant farmer | someone who would pay rent to a lord to farm part of their land |
| Umayyad | Sunni dynasty of caliphs that ruled from 661 to 750 |
| Vernacular | everyday language of ordinary people |
| Abu Bakr (573–634) | Muhammad’s father-in-law and first Muslim caliph following his death. An early convert to Islam, he advised Muhammad and traveled the hijra with him. Helped unite the Muslim people as successor to Muhammad. Under his rule, the Muslim empire expanded. |
| Christine de Pisan (c. 1364–1430) | Daughter of a physician and astronomer in the French court. Highly educated and spoke several languages. After being widowed at 25, she began to write poetry and then comment on social issues |
| Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) | Philosopher, writer, and poet who was deeply involved in Italian politics including the battles of popes and monarchs. He held political offices at different times throughout his life & wrote many poems and other works, but known best for Divine Comedy |
| Ferdinand III (1452-1516) and Isabella I (1451-1504) | King of Aragon and queen of Castille. Their marriage joined the two countries to become the country of Spain. Their military efforts were responsible for the final success of the Reconquista |
| Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400) | First important poet of his time to write in English. He worked as a copywriter, member of Parliament, and justice of the peace. His keen observations of many different types of people was reflected in his famous work, Canterbury Tales |
| Muhammad (c. 570–632) | Introduced the religion of Islam to southwestern Asia. In Muslim belief, he heard the voice of the angel Gabriel telling him to serve as messenger for God. He spent the rest of his life spreading Islam. Muslims today honor him as God’s final prophet |
| Pope Urban II (1042-1099) | Leader of the Roman Catholic church when the Seljuk Turks were threatening the Byzantine empire. He convened the Council of Clermont, where he launched the First Crusade to win the Holy Land from the Muslims |
| Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) | Philosopher, theologian, and monk who helped bridge the gap between medieval faith and the philosophy of reason in Greek philosophy. He explained the idea of natural law, (universal laws based on reason that are independent of laws passed by gov.) |
| Caliph | Successor to Muhammad as political and religious leader of the Muslims |
| Calculus | a branch of mathematics in which calculations are made using special symbolic notations, developed by Isaac Newton |
| Canonize | recognize a person as a saint |
| Compromise | an agreement in which each side makes concessions; an acceptable middle ground |
| Council of Trent | a group of Catholic leaders that met between 1545 and 1563 to respond to Protestant challenges and direct the future of the Catholic Church |
| Diet | assembly or legislature |
| Engraving | art form in which an artist etches a design on a metal plate with acid and then uses the plate to make multiple prints |
| Flanders | a region that included parts of present-day northern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands; was an important industrial and financial center of northern Europe during the Middle Ages and Renaissance |
| Florence | a city in the Tuscany region of northern Italy that was the center of the Italian Renaissance |
| Geneva | Swiss city-state that became a Calvinist theocracy in the 1500s; today a major city in Switzerland |
| Ghetto | separate section of a city where members of a minority group are forced to live |
| Gravity | force that pulls objects in Earth’s sphere to the center of Earth |
| Heliocentric | based on the belief that the sun is the center of the universe |
| Humanism | an intellectual movement at the heart of the Renaissance that focused on education and the classics |
| Humanities | study of subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and history that were taught in ancient Greece and Rome |
| Hypothesis | an unproven theory accepted for the purposes of explaining certain facts or to provide a basis for further investigation |
| Indulgence | in the Roman Catholic Church, pardon for sins committed during a person's lifetime |
| Patron | a person who provides financial support for the arts |
| Perspective | artistic technique used to give paintings and drawings a three-dimensional effect |
| Predestination | Calvinist belief that God long ago determined who would gain salvation |
| Scientific Method | careful, step-by-step process used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis |
| Sect | a subgroup of a major religious group |
| Theocracy | government run by religious leaders |
| Utopian | idealistic or visionary, usually used to describe a perfect society |
| Vernacular | everyday language of ordinary people |
| Wittenberg | a city in northern Germany, where Luther drew up his 95 Theses |
| Albrecht Durer (1471–1528) | Painter, draftsman, writer. Engraving had greatest impact. Born in Nuremberg, Germany and traveled to Italy, studied the masters, and spread Renaissance ideas to Northern Europe. Many of his works (The Apocalypse, Adam and Eve) had religious themes |
| Baldassare Castiglione (1478–1529) | Italian courtier, diplomat, and writer. The Book of the Courtier, was read for its advice on the manners, skills, learning, and virtues that court members should display. He described an ideal courtier as well-mannered, well-educated, and multitalented |
| Charles V (1500–1558) | served as Holy Roman emperor (1519–1521), king of Spain as Charles I (1516–1556), and archduke of Austria as Charles I (1519–1521), and inherited the Spanish and Habsburg empires |
| Elizabeth I (1533–1603) | Queen of England upon death of Queen Mary. Under her reign, England became an important European power. England prospered economically, and culturally. Her balanced handling of the English religious conflicts earned her the nickname Good Queen Bess |
| Erasmus (c.1466–1536) | Dutch priest, writer, and scholar who promoted humanism. Wrote texts on many subjects and called for the translation of the Bible into the vernacular to help spread learning, ideas, and education. He wanted to reform Church corruption |
| Henry VIII (1491–1547) | 2nd Tudor king of England. Lost much popularity with constant involvement in wars. Desire for a male heir was the catalyst for his eventual break with the Roman Catholic Church and the formation of the Church of England (Anglican) |
| Johannes Gutenburg (c.1400–1468) | born in Germany, became a goldsmith, printer, and publisher. His invention of a printing press with movable type changed the world. c. 1455, he printed the first complete edition of the Christian Bible on his press |
| John Calvin (1509–1564) | French theologian and lawyer. Influenced by the humanist philosophy of Erasmus, he became involved with the Protestant movement. Later moved to Geneva where he set up a theocracy and wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvinism |
| Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) | Italian artist considered the ideal Renaissance man due to his varied talents. His sketches for flying machines and undersea boats resembled the later inventions of airplanes and submarines. His paintings like the Mona Lisa remain famous today |
| Martin Luther (1483–1546) | Catalyst of Protestant Reformation. Joined a strict order of Roman Catholic monks, studied theology. Seeked to reform abuses in Church and challenged teachings in his 95 Theses. Led to excommunication and Lutheranism, the first of several Protestant sects |
| Mary Tudor (1516–1558) | First queen to rule England in her own right. Daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife. A Catholic who failed to turn back the tide of the Protestant Reformation in England. Her vigorous persecution of Protestants earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary" |
| Michelangelo (1475–1564) | Italian painter known for sculptures, engineering, architecture, and poems. His statues show the influence of Greek traditions on Renaissance artists. Painted murals for Sistine Chapel, designed dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral. Model for Washington D.C. |
| Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527) | Born in Florence. Renaissance political philosopher, statesman, and writer. Use of vernacular. "The Prince"; guide for rulers on how to gain and keep power. "The end justifies the means." His last name is still used today to describe deceitful politics |
| Petrarch (1304–1374) | lived in Florence and was an early Renaissance humanist, poet, and scholar. He assembled a library of Greek and Roman manuscripts gathered from monasteries and churches, helping to preserve these classic works for future generations |
| Raphael (1483–1520) | Renaissance painter who blended Christian and classical styles. His famous paintings include the mother of Jesus, and School of Athens, showing an imaginary gathering of great thinkers, scientists, and artists including Michelangelo, Leonardo, and himself |
| Shakespeare (1564-1616) | born in England, became a famous poet and playwright during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Invented words and phrases that are still used today. Like other Renaissance writers, he took a humanist approach to his characters |
| Sir Thomas More (1478–1535) | Born in London. He became a lawyer, scholar, writer, and member of British parliament during the reign of Henry VIII. He wrote Utopia, describing an ideal society. The word utopian came to mean idealistic or visionary. In 1521, he was knighted. |
| St. Teresa of Avila (1515–1582) | gained renown as the author of several books on spiritual matters. Key influence during the Catholic Reformation. Carmelite nun, she dedicated most of her life to the reform of the Carmelite order, founding many convents throughout Spain |
| Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) | Catholic theologian who supported reform. When Henry VIII broke with the R.C. Church, he became England’s first Protestant archbishop. Distributed English Bibles to churches. Developed Book of Common Prayer. Adviser to Henry VIII and son, Edward VI |
| Francis Bacon (1561–1626 | distinguished English philosopher, statesman, and lawyer. A man of many talents, he promoted rational thought. He was held in high regard by philosophers and scientists in Europe as well as England |
| Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) | Italian astronomer and mathematician whose discoveries using a telescope supported the heliocentric universe theories of Copernicus. Challenged established scientific and religious thinking. Contributor to the development of the scientific method |
| Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556) | went from Spanish nobleman soldier to theologian and an influential person in Catholic Reformation. Decided serving God was holy chivalry. Preached, and did missionary work as founder of Society of Jesus, order of religious men later known as Jesuits |
| Isaac Newton (1642–1727) | Important figure of Scientific Revolution. English mathematician and physicist. 3 laws of motion form basic principles of physics and led to universal law of gravity. Book "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" is very important in modern day |
| Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) | German astronomer whose discoveries expanded on Copernicus’s heliocentric universe. Research showed the planets move in a particular orbit around the sun. Achievements included a correct description of how vision occurs, and how a telescope uses light |
| Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) | Danish astronomer who produced the most accurate measurements and locations of the stars before the use of the telescope. Observation that a new star had appeared challenged the belief that the stars were fixed and forever unchanging |
| Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) | Polish astronomer who concluded heliocentrism. This contradicted the religious and scientific belief of geocentrism. Although he did not suffer immediate challenges from the Church, his most important work did not appear in print until after his death |
| René Descartes (1596–1650) | French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. One of the first to abandon traditional methods of thought based on Aristotle’s teachings. Promoted new science based on observation and experiments. Called the father of modern philosophy |
| Robert Boyle (1627–1691) | Philosopher and writer, focused on chemistry, physics, and natural history. Work with pressurized air led to the development of Boyle’s Law; relationship between pressure and the volume of gas. One of the founders of the Royal Society of London |
| Absolute monarchies | a form of government in which a ruler has complete authority over the government and lives of the people he or she governs |
| Autocratic | having unlimited power |
| Balance of power | distribution of military and economic power that prevents any one nation from becoming too strong |
| Baroque | ornate style of art and architecture popular in the 1600s and 1700s |
| Boyar | landowning noble in Russia under the tsars |
| Cabinet | parliamentary advisors to the king who originally met in a small room, or cabinet |
| Censorship | restriction on access to ideas and information |
| Constitutional government | government whose power is defined and limited by law |
| Dissenter | Protestant whose views and opinions differed from those of the Church of England |
| Divine right | idea that a ruler’s authority came directly from God |
| Edict of Nantes | law issued by French king Henry IV in 1598 giving more religious freedom to French Protestants |
| English Bill of Rights | series of acts passed in 1689 by the English Parliament that limited the rights of the monarchy and ensured the superiority of Parliament |
| Enlightened despot | absolute ruler who used his or her power to bring about political and social change |
| Huguenots | French Protestants of the 1500s and 1600s |
| Intendant | official appointed by French king Louis XIV to govern the provinces, collect taxes, and recruit soldiers |
| Janizaries | members of the elite forces of the Ottoman army |
| Laissez faire | policy allowing business to operate with little or no government interference |
| Levée | morning ritual during which nobles would wait upon French king Louis XIV |
| Limited monarchy | government in which a constitution or legislative body limits the monarch's powers |
| Natural Law | unchanging principle, discovered through reason, that governs human conduct |
| Natural Rights | rights that belongs to all humans from birth, such as life, liberty, and property |
| Oligarchy | government in which ruling power belongs to a few people |
| Ottoman | a member of a Turkish-speaking nomadic people |
| Partition | a division into pieces |
| Philosophe | French for “philosopher”; French thinker who desired reform in society during the Enlightenment |
| Prime minister | the chief executive of a parliamentary government |
| Puritan | member of an English Protestant group who wanted to “purify” the Church of England by making it more simple and more morally strict |
| Rococo | personal, elegant style of art and architecture made popular during the mid |
| Salon | informal social gathering at which writers, artists, philosophes, and others exchanged ideas |
| Social Contract | an agreement by which people gave up their freedom to a powerful government in order to avoid chaos |
| St. Petersburg | a port city in northwestern Russia founded in 1703 by Peter the Great |
| Versailles | royal French residence and seat of government established by King Louis XIV |
| Warm | water port |
| Westernization | adoption of western ideas, technology, and culture |
| Adam Smith (1723-1790) | Scottish economist remembered for book. His argument for free markets with little gov. interference shaped world economies for 200+ years. Called father of modern economics and one of the most influential economic philosophers |
| An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations | Written by Adam Smith |
| Catherine the Great (1729-1796) | The German-born empress of Russia (1762–1796) who led her country in becoming part of the political and cultural life of Europe |
| Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642) | considered one of the greatest politicians in history, he played an important role in France's history while serving as chief minister to Louis XIII |
| Charles I (1600-1649) | the 2nd Stuart king of England, Scotland, and Wales. His belief in the divine right of kings brought him into constant conflict with Parliament. This conflict eventually led to the English Civil War and his defeat and execution for treason |
| Henry IV (1050-1106) | a German king who became Holy Roman Emperor in 1084. His efforts to increase power of the monarchy led to conflict with Pope Gregory VIII over lay investiture. Gregory excommunicated him but later reinstated him in the church after he did penance |
| James I (1566-1625) | king of Scotland, then England and Ireland. He deeply believed in the divine right of kings to rule over all their subjects without interference. His views were in sharp contrast to Parliament, leading to conflict. Author of his version of the Bible |
| Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) | served under King Louis XIV as controller general of finance (from 1665) and secretary of state for the navy (from 1668). He carried out economic programs that helped make France the strongest power in Europe |
| Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) | Swiss-born philosopher and writer whose works inspired leaders of the French Revolution. He revolutionized thought in politics and ethics, had an impact on how parents educated their children, and even influenced people's taste in music and in other arts |
| John Locke (1632-1704) | strongly influenced the U.S. Constitution and development of USA gov. People are born with natural rights that cannot be taken away. His ideas on the government's responsibility to the people were fundamental to the leaders of the American Revolution |
| Joseph II (1741-1790) | Holy Roman Emperor in Austria; considered the most radical enlightened despot. Modernized gov. reforms after his mother (Maria Theresa). Equal treatment for all subjects, abolished serfdom, freedom of press, religious equality for Protestants and Jews |
| Louis XIV (1638-1715) | served as king of France (1643–1715), considered the symbol of absolute monarchy |
| Montesquieu (born Charles Louis de Secondat) (1689-1755) | Title of Baron from his uncle. "Persian Letters" ridiculed the French government and social classes. In "The Spirit of the Laws" he advanced the idea of separation of powers—a foundation of modern American democracy |
| Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) | an English soldier and gentleman who led the forces against Charles I of England during the English Civil War. He made himself Lord Protector of England in 1653, leading the country as a republic until his death |
| Peter the Great (1672-1725) | tsar of Russia, reigned jointly with his half-brother Ivan V (1682–1696) and alone (1696–1725). Was proclaimed emperor in 1721. He was one of Russia's greatest statesmen, organizers, and reformers |
| Suleiman (1494-1566) | a sultan of the Ottoman Empire who ruled from 1520 to 1566. During this time he brought bureaucracy and stability to the empire and advanced the arts, law, and architecture. His military campaigns greatly expanded the scope of the empire |
| Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) | influential English political philosopher, best known for his work; Leviathan. Believed only a powerful government was capable of protecting society, and people entered into a social contract with their government to avoid the inevitable chaos of life |
| Voltaire (born François-Marie Arouet) (1694-1778) | Philosopher who wrote with sarcasm and wit. Sent to the Bastille prison twice due to his criticism of French authorities, banned from Paris. Wrote about political and religious freedom. Fought enemies of freedom, such as ignorance and intolerance |
| Adobe | a mixture of clay and plant fibers that becomes hard as it dries in the sun and that can be used for building |
| Alliance | formal agreement between two or more nations or powers to cooperate and come to one another’s defense |
| Allyu | a social subunit of a wide family that would have been members of the same kin group, it could be composed of hundreds of small family units which could be categorized as subtribes |
| Capitalism | economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit |
| Civil war | a war fought between groups of people in the same nation |
| Chinampa | In the Aztec empire, an artificial island used to cultivate crops and made of mud piled atop reed mats that were anchored to the lake bed with willow trees |
| Columbian Exchange | the global exchange of goods, ideas, plants and animals, and disease that began with Columbus’s journey to the Americas |
| Commercial Revolution | A period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism which lasted from about the 1500s until the early 1700s. It included the growth of capitalism, banking, and investing |
| Conquistador | “conqueror” in Spanish; a leader in the Spanish conquests of America, Mexico, and Peru in the sixteenth century |
| Creole | in Spanish colonial America, an American born descendant of Spanish settlers |
| Encomienda | the right, granted by Spanish monarchs to conquistadors, to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a particular area |
| Entrepreneur | person who assumes financial risk in the hope of making a profit |
| Free Enterprise System | business organization in such areas as shipping, mining, railroads, or factories |
| Immunity | resistance, such as the power to keep from being affected by a disease |
| Inti | The Inca sun god |
| Inflation | economic cycle that involves a rapid rise in prices linked to a sharp increase in the amount of money available |
| Maize | Corn |
| Mercantilism | policy by which a nation sought to export more than it imported in order to build its supply of gold and silver |
| Mesoamerica | region of North America, including Mexico and Central America, in which civilizations with common cultural features developed before Europeans entered the continent |
| Mestizo | in Spanish colonial America, a person of Native American and European descent |
| Mulatto | in Spanish colonial America, a person of African and European descent |
| Nazca | a culture that thrived in the Andean region from about 200 b.c. to a.d. 600 |
| Olmec | The earliest American civilization, located along the Gulf Coast of Mexico from about 1200 B.C. to 400 B.C. |
| Peon | a worker forced to labor for a landlord to pay off a debt that is impossible to pay off in his or her lifetime, which is incurred by food, tool, or seeds the landlord has advanced to him or her |
| Peninsular | member of the highest class in Spain’s colonies in the Americas |
| Price Revolution | period in European history when inflation rose rapidly |
| Privateer | Dutch, English, and French pirates who preyed on treasure ships from the Americas in the 1500s, operating with the approval of European governments |
| Quipu | knotted strings used by Inca officials for record keeping |
| Sapa Inca | the title of the Inca emperor |
| Stela | in the ancient world, a tall, commemorative monument that was often decorated |
| Tariff | tax on imported goods |
| Tenochtitlan | Capitol city of the Aztec Empire |
| Teotihuacan | city that dominated the Valley of Mexico from about a.d. 200 to a.d. 750 and that influenced the culture of later Mesoamerican peoples |
| Tiahuanaco | a culture that thrived in the Andean region from about a.d. 200 to 1000 |
| Tribute | payment that conquered peoples may be forced to pay their conquerors |
| Viceroy | one who governed in India in the name of the British monarch |
| Bartolome de Las Casas (c. 1474 to July 17, 1566) | Dominican priest & historian famed as early advocate for human rights in Americas, knowing of evils NA suffered under the encomienda, his reports of abuses helped to pass laws baning enslavement & abuse in 1542, spent rest of life fighting for rights of A |
| Francisco Pizzaro (c. 1476 to June 26, 1541) | born into a very poor Spanish family, he 1513 joined Balboa’s expedition to discover the “South Sea.” In 1532, arrived in Peru w/ brothers, deposed the Incan ruler Atahualpa, conquered Peru, founded Lima in 1535, and later assassinated by Spanish rivals. |
| Hernan Cortes (c. 1485 to 1547) | Span. landowner in Cuba & conquistador who led expedition to Mex. in 1518, allied w/ NA groups, he conquered Aztec empire, including its capital in 1521. RE Charles V, 1522 made him gov of New Spain, but was later removed from power, retired @ Spain, 1540 |
| Moctezuma (Moctezuma II, 1466 to c. June 30, 1520) | the last Aztec emperor, he wrongly thought that Cortés might be the godking Quetzalcoatl, he was defeated by Cortés and forced to sign over his land and treasure, he was taken prisoner and killed as the Aztecs tried to drive the Spanish from Tenochtitlán. |
| Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1438 to 1471) | a skilled warrior growing up. He expanded the Inca empire to what is now Peru and Equador. His capital was Cuzco, and he is credited with developing its city plan |
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