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Psychology 2nd Exam
Chapters 4 & 6
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Acquisition | the INITIAL learning of the CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR). |
| Avoidance Learning | In CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, learning that occurs when a CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) is paired w/ an unpleasant UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US) that leads to an organism avoiding the CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS). |
| Behavior Modification | Technique that brings about therapeutic change in behavior through the use of secondary resources. (Ex: Rehab Programs/Prison). |
| Classical Conditioning (IVAN PAVLOV) | Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated w/ a stimulus that causes a reflexive behavior, and in time, it's sufficient enough to cause that particular behavior. (Ex: Dentist's drill=sweaty palms; significant other=smile). |
| Cognitive Learning | Acquisition of information that often is not immediately acted on but is stored for later use. |
| Conditioned Emotional Response (CER) | An emotional response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus. (Ex: LITTLE ALBERT) -- US=noise; UR=crying; CS=rat; CR=crying |
| Conditioned Response (CR) | A response that depends on pairings of the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus; once learned , the conditioned response occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. (Ex: salivation after hearing bell). |
| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) | An originally neutral stimulus that acquires significance through the "conditioning" of repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (US). (Ex: bell sounded before the food is presented). |
| Continuous Reinforcement | Reinforcement given for each desired response. Get reinforced every time the desired behavior occurs. STRONG METHOD; most prone to extinction. |
| Contrapreparedness | A built-in "inability" for certain conditioned stimuli to elicit particular conditioned responses. Fears that are automatically in you. (Ex: hard to develop car door phobia; easy to develop snake phobia). |
| Delayed Reinforcement | Reinforcement given some period of time after the desired behavior is exhibited. (Ex: party tonight or study for a test scheduled in 7 days). |
| Discrimination | The ability to distinguish between the desired response and a similar but undesirable one. (Ex: food, you get food poisoning, you no longer eat that specific food but you still eat). We learn to respond to particular stimuli, not just anything similar). |
| Discriminative Stimulus | The cue that tells the organism whether a specific response will lead to the expected reinforcement. (Ex: given a cup of milk, you don't automatically blow on it). |
| Extinction (in Classical Conditioning) | The process by which a CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR) comes to be eliminated through repeated presentations of the CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) without the presence of the UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US). (salivation eliminated after repeated bell sounds w/out food). |
| Extinction (in Operant Conditioning) | The fading out of a response following an initial burst of behavior after the withdrawal of reinforcement. (Ex: dead battery. Extinction=when we stop trying). |
| Partial Reinforcement | Only happens intermittently. Less resistant to extinction |
| Partial Reinforcement: Fixed Interval | Reinforcement happens after a fixed/set amt. of time, assuming that the desire behavior has happened in that time period. (Ex: assuming that you do your job, you will receive a paycheck). |
| Partial Reinforcement: Variable Interval | Not set; VARIABLE (it varies)...it just depends. (Ex: study sessions before breaks). |
| Partial Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio | Depends on the # of responses. (Ex: job is stuffing envelopes. and you get paid for every 1000 enveloped you stuff). |
| Partial Reinforcement: Variable Ratio | Reinforcement is given after a random # of responses. (Ex: slot machines/casinos/lottery). Almost completely resistant to extinction. |
| Food Aversions/Taste Aversion | A classically conditioned avoidance of a certain food or taste. |
| Generalization | The ability to generalize both to similar stimuli and from a learned response to a similar response. (Ex: Little Albert is scared of white rabbits, white dogs, etc.) (Ex: blowing on hot chocolate even w/ cold milk). |
| Habituation | The learning that occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus decreases an organism's responsiveness to the stimulus. (Ex: getting used to it; response will eventually diminish). |
| Immediate Reinforcement | Reinforcement given immediately after the desired behavior is exhibited. (Ex: party tonight or study for exam scheduled in 7 days?) |
| Latent Learning | Learning that occurs without behavioral signs. |
| Law of Effect | Actions that subsequently lead to a "satisfying state of affairs" are more likely to be repeated. (Ex: if something makes you happy, then you do it again!) -- same goes for unsatisfying events. |
| Learning | A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. Defined by behaviorists. |
| Negative Punishment | Occurs when a behavior leads to the removal of a pleasant event/circumstance, thereby decreasing the likelihood of a recurrence of the behavior. Taking away something positive (pleasant)(Ex: if you don't do your hw on time, you'll get your PS3 taken away) |
| Negative Reinforcement | Occurs when an unpleasant event/circumstance is removed following a desired behavior, thereby increasing the likelihood of a recurrence of the behavior. Taking away something negative. (Ex: if you do your hw on time, you don't have to cut the lawn). |
| Observational Learning | Learning that occurs through watching others, not through reinforcement. |
| Operant Conditioning (EDWARD THORNDIKE) | The process by which a behavior becomes associated with its consequences. (Tantrums are punished=fewer tantrums; Tantrums bring attention=more tantrums; Slot machines pay out=gamble more; Reward dog for sitting=dog is likely to sit). |
| Phobia | a fear and avoidance of an object or situation extreme enough to interfere with everyday life. |
| Positive Punishment | Occurs when a behavior leads to an undesired consequence, thereby decreasing the likelihood of a recurrence of that behavior. You add something negative (Ex: spanking, hitting, etc.) |
| Positive Reinforcement | Occurs when a desired reinforcer is presented after a behavior, thereby increasing the likelihood of a recurrence of that behavior. Adding something positive (pleasant). |
| Primary Reinforcer | An event or object, such as food, water, or relief from pain, that is inherently reinforcing. Instinctively causes us to change a behavior. |
| Reinforcement | The process by which consequences lead to an increase in the likelihood that the response will occur again. Increases the likelihood of a behavior. |
| Response Contingency | The relationship that occurs when a consequence is dependent on the organism's emitting the desired behavior. |
| Secondary Reinforcer | An event/object (attention, praise, money, good grades, promotion) that is reinforcing but that does not inherently satisfy a physical need. Do not "need" a physical need, but are still reinforcing. |
| Shaping | The gradual process of reinforcing an organism for behavior that gets closer to the desired behavior. Behavior gets closer to the target. (Ex: making your bed). |
| Spontaneous Recovery (in Classical Conditioning) | The process by which the CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) will again elicit the CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR) after extinction has occurred. (Ex: rat will elicit the crying; bell will again elicit the salivation). |
| Spontaneous Recovery (in Operant Conditioning) | The process by which an old response reappears if there is a break after extinction. You never forget how to use it..you purposely do not use it. |
| Successive Approximations | The series of smaller behavior involved in shaping a complex behavior. Gets closer each time...rewards as they get closer to the desired behavior. |
| Unconditional Response (UR) | The reflexive response elicited by a particular stimulus. SALIVATION. |
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) | A stimulus that elicits an automatic response (UR), without requiring prior learning. FOOD. |
| Language Production | The ability to speak or otherwise use words, phrases, and sentences to convey information. Create/generate. (Ex: e-mails, tweeting, blogging, etc.) |
| Language Comprehension | The ability to understand the message conveyed by words, phrases, and sentences. Understand. |
| Phonology | The structure of the sounds that can be used to produce words in a language. STRUCTURE. |
| Phoneme | The basic building block of speech sounds. Humans can produce about 100). BUILDING BLOCKS. |
| Syntax | The internal grammatical structure of a sentence, determined by a set of rules for combining different parts of speech into acceptable arrangement. The order of words in a certain language. (Ex: red chair=silla roja). RULES. |
| Semantics | The meaning of a word or sentence. Sometimes even when the order is wrong. MEANING. |
| Morpheme | The smallest unit of meaning in a language. (Ex: doghouse=2; doghouses=3). SMALLEST UNIT. |
| Propositional Representation | A mental sentence that expresses the unambiguous meaning of an assertion. How your brain remembers the "jist" of a word (general idea). Getting a basic idea & breaking it up into parts). |
| Pragmatics | The way that language conveys meaning indirectly, by implying rather than asserting. Practical-indirectly/implying. (Ex: -Is your mom home? -Yes!) |
| Inductive Reasoning | Reasoning that uses examples to figure out a rule; induction goes from the particular (example) to the general (a rule). |
| Deductive Reasoning | Reasoning that applies the rule of logic to a set of assumptions (stated as premises) to discover whether certain conclusions follow from those assumptions; deduction goes from the general to the particular. |
| Intelligence | The ability to solve problems well and to understand and learn complex material. Intelligence tests predict success in schools. |
| I.Q. | A score of an intelligence test, originally based on comparing mental age to chronological age but later based on norms. (Mental Age divided by Chronological Age times 100). |
| WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale0 | The most widely used intelligence test; consists of both verbal and performance subtests. (ADULTS) |
| WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) | The most widely used intelligence test; consists of both verbal and performance subtests. (CHILDREN) |
| Standardized Sample | A random selection of people, drawn from a carefully defined population. (Ex: TAKS). |
| Norming | The process of setting the mean score and standard deviation of a test, based on results from a standardized sample. When we set the MEAN & STANDARD DEVIATION of a set of test scores based on results from a standardized sample). |
| Normal Curve | "The Bell Curve" |
| Spearman | CHARLES SPEARMAN. British. Believed in 1 intelligence..."g" factor & "s" factor. |
| G | GENERAL FACTOR--either someone's got it, or they don't. (underlined factor of intelligence). |
| S | SPECIFIC FACTOR--specific skills. (too highly correlated---became meaningless). |
| Thurnstone | LOUIS THURNSTONE--Believed in MANY intelligences. Separate primary mental abilities. Verbal comprehension & spatial (location) visualization. |
| Fluid Intelligence | According to CATTELL & HORN, the kind of intelligence that underlines the creation of novel (new) solutions to problems. Helps solve NOVEL (new) problems. |
| Crystallized Intelligence | According to CATTELL & HORN, the kind of intelligence that relies on knowing facts and having the ability to use and combine them. Relies on previously learned information, relies on past skills. |
| Emotional Intelligence | The ability to understand and regulate emotions effectively. Knowing (recognizing) your own emotions; knowing your feelings; recognizing others' emotions; facilitating thought w/ emotion; handling relationships. Women tend to have higher E.I. than men. |
| Gardner | HOWARD GARDNER. Believed that everyone has a chance to be smart @ something. 8-9 forms of intelligence. |
| Gardner: Linguistic Intelligence | ability to use language well. (Ex: politics, car salesmen, journalism). |
| Gardner: Spatial Intelligence | Reason about spatial location. (Ex: architect, engineer, surgeon). |
| Gardner: Musical Intelligence | Understand music/compose music (Ex: musician, audio technician). |
| Gardner: Logical-Mathematical Intelligence | Ability to do math (logical), reasoning. (Ex: math, science, computer programming). |
| Gardner: Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence | Ability to understand movement. (Ex: dancers, choreographers, sports). |
| Gardner: Intrapersonal intelligence | Ability to understand the inter-workings of a person. (Ex: minister, psychologists, therapists). |
| Gardner: Interpersonal Intelligence | Ability to understand other people. (Ex: marriage counselor, public relations, human resources). |
| Gardner: Naturalistic Intelligence | Ability to observe aspects of the "natural life" (animals, plant life). (Ex: zoo keeper, meteorologist). |
| Gardner: Existential Intelligence (tentative) | Ability to address the big question(s) of existence. (Ex: preachers, pastors, philosophists). |
| Sternberg | ROBERT STERNBERG. 3 forms of intelligence. |
| Sternberg: Analytical Intelligence | COMPONENTIAL. Academic (school based) -- (Ex: Einstein). |
| Sternberg: Practical Intelligence | CONTEXTUAL. Everyday--ability to solve problems in your (personal) environment. (Ex: sewing button). |
| Sternberg: Creative Intelligence | 2-FACET. Solve novel (new) problems + automatize (automatic) thinking. (Ex: driving). |
| Test bias | Test design features that lead a particular group to perform well or poorly and that thus invalidate the test. |
| Microenvironment | The environment created by a person's own presence, which depends partly on appearance and behavior. |
| Mental Retardation | People who have an I.Q. of 70 or less and significant limitations in at least 2 aspects of everyday life since childhood. |
| Gifted | People who have I.Q.'s of at least 135, but more commonly between 150 and 180. |
| Punishment | 2 Types: Positive & Negative. Decreases the likelihood of behavior occurring. (Ex: burping, fighting, arguing, pooping, etc.) |
| Effective Punishment | Swift (no waiting until dad gets home); Consistent(same consequence each time); Appropriately Aversive (unpleasant enough to matter, but not too bad). |
| Intelligence Testing History | ALFRED BINET & THEODORE SIMON (France). Developed the 1st intelligence test. LEWIS TERMAN (Stanford U.) & DAVID WECHSLER (American). |
| Mental Age | What you scored on the test. |
| Chronological Age | Your real age. |
| Standard Deviation | how much individual scores deviate (vary) from the mean. (average deviation from the mean). (Note: for intelligence=15 pts.) |
| Lewis Terman | Developed AMERICAN VERSION of the Binet-Simon Test. Called: STANDFORD-BINET TEST, for ages 2 to adult. |
| David Wechsler | WAIS. WISC. Tested performance 7 verbal subscales. Primary tests used today. |
| Reliability | Test produces consistent results. |
| Validity | Test measures what it is supposed to measure. |
| Raymond Cattell & John Horn | Fluid Intelligence & Crystallized Intelligence. |
| Adoption Studies | Correlation of I.Q.'s for identical twins raised apart is higher than for fraternal twins and non-twin siblings raised together. |
| Adoption Studies | An adopted child's I.Q. correlates higher w/ the biological mother's I.Q. than w/ the adoptive mother's I.Q. |
| Adoption Studies | Strong evidence of the link b/w genes & I.Q. |
| Effects of Environment | Stoolmiller=estimated the effects of the environment on I.Q. to be 57%. |
| Reaction Range | Parents smart, you have a high range of being smart. Reaction depends on the environment. (Ex: great public environment=higher end on range) (Ex: private environment=lower end on range). |
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