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Chapter 8
Human Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Chapter 8 | Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood |
| sense of self | self concept. |
| descriptive and evaluated mental pictures of one's abilities and traits | self concept. |
| cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself | self-definition. |
| _ is our total picture of our abilities and traits. | Self concept. |
| How does the sense of self have a social aspect? | Children incorporate self-image into growing understanding of how others see them. |
| When does the sense of self began to come into focus? | Toddlerhood, as children develop self-awareness. |
| the way a child describes themselves | self-definition. |
| When does the child's self-definition typically change and why? | About age 5 to 7, reflects self concept development. |
| How do most early childhood. Children describe themselves? | Concrete, observational behaviors, external characteristics, preferences, possessions, members of household, particular skills rather than general abilities, unrealistically positive. |
| What can't children do until around age, in regards to describing themselves? | Describe in generalize traits, recognize they have conflicting emotions, be self-critical while holding positive overall self concept. |
| What specific changes make up this “age 5 to 7 shift” about describing one’s self? | Single representations, representational mappings, representational systems. |
| in neo-Piagetian terminology, 1st stage in development of self-definition, in which children describe themselves in terms of individual unconnected characteristics and all or nothing terms. | Single representations. |
| the self one actually is | real self. |
| the self one would like to be | ideal self. |
| in neo-Piagetian terminology, 2nd stage in development of self-definition, in which a child makes logical connections between aspects of the self but still sees these characteristics in all or nothing terms. | Representational mappings. |
| the judgment a person makes about his or her self worth | self-esteem. |
| Which definition of the age 5 to 7 shift is: statements about self are one dimensional, thinking jumps from one thing to another, no logical connections, can't imagine having two emotions at once, cannot consider different aspects of self at same time. | Single representation. |
| In which stage of the neo-Piagetian development of self-definition can a person not distinguish between the real self and ideal self? | Single representation. |
| Which definition of the age 5 to 7 shift is: make logical connections between one aspect of self and another, completely positive, all or nothing terms, cannot see how one might be good at some things and not others | representational mappings. |
| neo-Piagetian terminology, 3rd stage development of self-definition, in middle childhood, in which child begins to integrate specific features of self into general, multidimensional concept and self descriptions will become more balanced and realistic. | representational systems. |
| Which definition of the age 5 to 7 shift is: takes place in middle childhood, children begin to integrate specific features of self into multidimensional concept, all or nothing thinking declines, self descriptions become more balanced and realistic. | Representational systems. |
| What are interdependent aspects of the self? Which culture encourages it? | Compliance with authority, appropriate conduct, humility, sensible longing to community, Chinese. |
| How do parents transmit how to define the self? | Everyday conversations, cultural ideas, beliefs. |
| What are independent aspects of the self? Which culture encourages it? | Individuality, self-expression, self-esteem, European-American. |
| At what age do children absorb differing cultural styles of self-definition? | As early as age 3 or 4, increases with age. |
| How do European-American children tend to describe themselves? | Personal attributes and beliefs, personality traits and tendencies, unqualifiedly positive light |
| How do Chinese children tend to describe themselves? | Social categories and relationships, specific overt behaviors, neutrally. |
| What is the self evaluating part of the self concept? | Self-esteem. |
| What is self-esteem based on? | Child's growing cognitive ability to describe and define themselves. |
| Children's _ , at age 5 tended to predict their _ at age 8. | Positive or negative self-perceptions, self-perceptions and socioemotional functioning. |
| Before the child's age 5 to 7 shift, is their self-esteem, based on reality? | Not necessarily. |
| At what age does the self-esteem tend to not be all or nothing, become more realistic? | Middle childhood. |
| What causes personal evaluations of confidence to become more realistic in middle childhood? | Internalization of parental and societal standards, begin to shape and maintain self worth. |
| When self-esteem is high, a child is motivated to do what? | Achieve. |
| What is self-esteem contention on? | Success. |
| child's view of failure or criticism as an indictment of their worth and may feel helpless to do better. | Helpless pattern. |
| What happens to children whose self-esteem is contingent on success? | Become demoralized when fail, attribute poor performance to personal deficiencies, don't try new strategies. |
| What happens to children whose self-esteem is not contingent on the success? | Attribute failure to factors outside cells, need to try harder, try new strategies. |
| Trace early self concept development. | Develop self-definition (single representation, representational mapping, representational systems), gain self-esteem |
| Discuss cultural influence on early self concept development. | Culture determines how one describes oneself, Western-independent aspects of self, non-Western-interdependent aspects of self. |
| Explain the significance of the 5 to 7 shift. | Changes children's self-definition, how they describe themselves |
| How does young children’s self-esteem differ from older children's? | Ability to describe self, realistically describing self. |
| How does the helpless pattern arise? | When doing something wrong, whether person gives up, thinks of self as failure, not changing strategies. |
| How can parents and teachers help children have high self-esteem? | Give specific, focused feedback rather than criticize child. |
| What is one of the key advances of early childhood? | Ability to understand and regulate one's feelings. |
| How can emotional self regulation help children? | way they show emotions, sensitivity to how others feel, weight children guide behavior, ability to get along with others. |
| What do preschoolers understand about emotions? | Can talk about feelings, discern feelings of others, understand emotions are connected with experiences, on get what you want be happy, don't get what you want be sat. |
| What is a reason for younger children's confusion about their feelings? | Do not understand they can experience contrary emotional reactions at same time. |
| When do children acquire a more sophisticated understanding of conflicting emotions? | Middle childhood. |
| When do emotions directed toward the self typically develop? | End of the 3rd year, after child gain self-awareness, except standards of behavior parents of set. |
| Are children able to recognize what brings on emotions directed towards the self? | No. |
| Describes the progression of the 5 to 7 shift in ages 4 to 5. | Do not describe shame or pride. |
| Describes the progression of the 5 to 7 shift in ages 5 to 6. | Said parents would feel ashamed or proud, but did not acknowledge these emotions themselves. |
| Describes the progression of the 5 to 7 shift in ages 6 to 7. | Would feel proud or ashamed but only if observed. |
| Describes the progression of the 5 to 7 shift in ages 7 to 8. | Would feel ashamed or proud even if no one saw them. |
| Erikson's 3rd stage and psychosocial development, in which children balance the are cheaper sequels with reservations about doing so. | Initiative versus guilt. |
| What virtue is associated with initiative versus guilt? | Purpose. |
| The courage to envision and pursue goals without being unduly inhibited by guilt or fear of punishment | purpose. |
| How do children show self-esteem? | Describing themselves positively or negatively |
| How do children show emotional growth? | Understand conflicting emotions, regulate emotions, understand emotions directed towards self |
| How do children show initiative? | Going out and trying new things without feeling guilt |
| Trace two typical developments in understanding of emotions. | Understanding emotions, regulating emotions |
| Explain the significance of Erikson's 3rd stage of personality development. | Children go out and try new things without fear, develop virtue of purpose. |
| Awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female. | Gender identity. |
| What is an important aspect of the developing self concept? | Gender identity, self-definition. |
| Psychological or behavioral differences between males and females | gender differences. |
| True or false: in children age 3 to 6, boys and girls on average remain more alike than different. | True. |
| What are some of the behavior differences between boys and girls age 3 to 6? | Boys-superior motor performance, physical aggression, more active, more intense pleasure in physical activity; girls-better able to pay attention, inhibit inappropriate behavior. |
| What are some of the cognitive differences between boys and girls aged 3 to 6? | Girls-perform better on tests of verbal fluency, mathematical computation, memory for location of objects; boys-better verbal analogies, mathematical word problems, memory for sparkle configurations. |
| behaviors, interest, attitudes, skills and traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex, differ for males and females | gender roles. |
| socialization process whereby children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles | gender typing. |
| What are the 3 related aspects of gender identity? | Gender roles, gender typing, gender stereotypes. |
| Give an example of gender roles. | Women take care of children, men are providers and protectors. |
| Where are gender roles the most diverse and flexible? | Western cultures. |
| the acquisition of a gender role | gender typing. |
| preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior | gender stereotypes. |
| What are the 5 theoretical perspectives on gender development? | Biological, evolutionary, psychoanalytic, cognitive, social learning. |
| What are the basic beliefs of the biological approach? | Many or most behavioral differences between the sexes can be traced to biological differences. |
| What are the basic beliefs of the evolutionary approach? | Children develop gender roles in preparation for adult mating and reproductive behavior. |
| What are the basic beliefs of the psychoanalytic approach? | Gender identity occurs when child identifies with same sex parent. |
| What are the basic beliefs of the cognitive approach (cognitive developmental theory)? | Once a child learns she is a girl or he is a boy, child sorts information about behavior by gender and acts accordingly. |
| What are the basic beliefs of the cognitive approach (gender schema theory)? | Child sorts by gender because culture dictates that gender is an important schema. |
| What are the basic beliefs of the social learning approach? | Child mentally combines observations of gendered behavior and creates behavioral variations. |
| The existence of similar gender roles in many cultures suggested some gender differences may be why? | Biologically-based. |
| What are some explanations that investigators are uncovering to explain gender differences? | Genetic, hormonal, neurological. |
| _ in the bloodstream before or about the time of birth may affect the developing brain | hormones. |
| What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia? | Females with high prenatal levels of male sex hormones, tends to develop into tomboys. |
| What might suggest that gender identity may be rooted in chromosomal structure and cannot be easily changed? | Children born ambiguously or male with extremely small penises and race female, still declared themselves male later on in life. |
| Darwin's theory that gender roles developed in response to men's and women's differing reproductive needs | theory of sexual selection. |
| What does the evolutionary approach see gendered behavior as? | Biologically based with a purpose. |
| Why does Darwin believed that males tend to seek as many partners as possible? | Spread his seed, pass on genetic inheritance, value physical prowess, compete for mates, control of resources and social status. |
| What does Darwin believed about females in the evolutionary approach? | Woman invest time and energy in pregnancy, limited number of children, child survival is important, looks for mate who will remain with her, support their offspring, raise child to reproductive maturity, more caring, nurturing than men. |
| According to evolutionary theory, what develops during childhood as preparation for adult roles? | Male competitiveness and aggressiveness, female nurturance. |
| If the evolutionary theory is correct, what should happen with gender roles? | Should be universal, resistant to change. |
| What supports the evolutionary theory? | Women of all cultures tend to be primary caregivers. |
| What is evidence against the evolutionary theory? | Society and culture also determine gender roles, some women in societies are main or equal providers. |
| What do some evolutionary theorists see the evolution of gender roles as? | Dynamic process. |
| in Freudian theory, the process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors of the parent of the same sex | identification. |
| What other theorists use the term gender identity? | Social learning theories. |
| According to Freud, when will a child have gender identification? | When child represses wished to possess the parent of the other sex and identifies with the parent of the same sex. |
| Do most developmental psychologists favor the psychoanalytic approach in which Freud developed? | No. |
| According to the cognitive approach, how do children come to realize their gender? | People call a girl a girl and they observe and think about the world and realize they will always be female, construct own gender typing. |
| What is Kohlberg’s theory of gender development? | Gender knowledge precedes gendered behavior. |
| What is an example of gender knowledge precedes gendered behavior? | “I am a boy, so I like to do boy things.” |
| What are the basics of Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory? | Children search for cues about gender, realize gender they belong to, adopt behaviors perceived as consistent. |
| awareness that one will always be a male or female. | Gender consistency. |
| What is another name for gender consistency? | Sex category consistency. |
| At what 3 stages does gender consistency development? | Gender identity, gender stability, gender consistency. |
| awareness of one's own gender and that of others | gender identity. |
| When does gender identity occur? | Age 2 and 3. |
| occurs when a child realizes that they will grow up to, boy a man and a girl a woman, that gender does not change | gender stability. |
| When does gender consistency occur? | Age 3 to 7. |
| the realization that a girl is still a girl even if she has a short haircut and plays with trucks and a boy remains a boy even if he has long hair and earrings. | Gender consistency. |
| children at this stage may base judgments about gender on superficial appearances, such as clothing or hair style and share stereotyped behaviors | gender stability. |
| children realize that the behavior or dress does not affect their gender, they may become less rigid in their adherence to gender norms | gender consistency. |
| What is Kohlberg's basic insight on gender development? | Gender concepts influence behavior. |
| What do cognitive development theorists claim about gender consistency? | gender consistency does not need to precede gender typing, gender typing may be heightened by more sophisticated understanding that gender consistency brings. |
| What might the achievement of gender identity motivate children to do? | Learn more about their gender, be sure they are acting like their gender. |
| theory proposed by Bem, the children socialize themselves and their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be a male or female in a particular culture | gender schema theory. |
| Which gender development approach combines elements of cognitive developmental and social learning theory? | Gender schema theory. |
| _ seeks to describe a cognitive mechanism through which gender learning and gender typing can occur | gender schema theory. |
| mentally organized network of information that influences a wide for any of behaviors | schema. |
| What are the basics of the gender schema theory? | Children categories people and events, organize observations around schema of gender, once children know gender they are, take on roles by developing concept of what it means to be gender in their culture, match behavior to cultures gender schema. |
| In gender schema theory, how do gender schemas promote gender stereotypes? | Influencing judgments about behavior. |
| What does Bem suggest about children who show stereotypical behavior? | Experiencing pressure of gender conformity. |
| What are arguments against the gender schema theory and Kohlberg's theory? | Gender stereotyping does not always become stronger with increased gender knowledge, opposite can be true. |
| At what age do children begin to develop a repertoire of rigid stereotypes a bout of gender that they apply to themselves and others? | Ages 5 and 6. |
| At what age do schemas become more complex as children begin to take in and integrate contradictory information, such as the fact that many girls have short hair? | Age 7 or 8. |
| At what age do children develop more complex beliefs about gender and become more flexible in their views about gender roles? | Age 7 or 8. |
| What important contribution has cognitive approaches to gender development made? | Explore how children think about gender, what they know about it at various ages. |
| What is the disagreement about cognitive approaches to gender development? | Precisely what mechanism prompts children to act out gender roles, why some children become more strongly gender typed than others. |
| In traditional social learning theory, how do children acquire gender roles? | Observing models. |
| Albert Bandura's expansion of social learning theory, holds that children learn gender roles through socialization. | Social cognitive theory. |
| According to the social learning approach, what reinforces gender typing? | Behavioral feedback, direct teaching by parents and other adults. |
| observation enables children to learn much about gender typed behaviors before performing them | social cognitive theory. |
| In what learning theory can children mentally combine observations of multiple models and generate their own behavioral variations? | Social cognitive theory. |
| What is the critic’s argument against social cognitive theory? | How children differentiate between boys and girls before they have a concept of gender, what initially motivates children to acquire gender knowledge, how gender norms become internalized. |
| The way a child interprets and internalize his experiences with teachers, parents, peers and cultural institutions | socialization. |
| According to social cognitive theorist what plays a central part in gender development? | Socialization. |
| According to the social learning approach or social cognitive theory, what occurs between the ages of 3 and 4, in regards to gender development? | Socially guided control to self-regulation of gender related behavior. |
| What can influence gender development? | Family influences, peer influences, cultural influences. |
| True or false: experience in the family seems to reinforce gender typical preference is an attitude. | True. |
| Which gender tends to be more strongly gender socialized concerning flavor preferences? | Void. |
| Which gender seems to have more freedom in their clothes, games and choice of playmates? | Girls. |
| If a young child has an older sibling, what gender of the older sibling tends to gender type the younger sibling more? | Same-sex. |
| Even in early childhood, the peer group is a _ influence on gender typing. | major. |
| What kind of gender groups to 3-year-olds typically playing? | Sex segregated, reinforced gender typed behavior. |
| In early childhood, what may influence play choices the Maoist? | Influences by peers and media, it not as much models children see at home. |
| Which is stereotyped more: life portrayed on television or life in the real world? | Television. |
| What does social learning theory predict about children who watch television and their gender typing? | Children who watch a lot of television will become more gender typed by imitating models they see on the screen. |
| True or false: children's books, especially illustrated ones, are not a source of gender stereotypes. | False. |
| What are major strengths of the socialization approach? | Breadth, multiplicity of processes it examines, go for individual differences it reveals. |
| What are the 5 approaches to the study of gender development? | Biological, evolutionary, psychoanalytic, cognitive, social learning. |
| What are the basics of the biological approach to the study of gender development? | Gender differences are biologically based, related to hormones in the brain from birth. |
| What are the basics of the evolutionary approach to the study of gender development? | People relate to their gender for future reference of mating, both biologically based (with a purpose) and environmental. |
| What are the basics of the psychoanalytic approach to the study of gender development? | Child identifies with the same sex. |
| What are the basics of the cognitive approach to the study of gender development, according to the cognitive developmental theory (Kohlberg)? | Child learns their gender, sorts information about gender and acts accordingly. |
| What are the basics of the cognitive approach to the study of gender development, according to the gender schema theory? | Child's sorts by gender because culture dictates that gender is important schema. |
| What are the basics of the social learning approach (social cognitive theory) approach to the study of gender development? | Children learn gender roles through socialization, family influences, peer influences, cultural influences. |
| How do boys and girls become aware of the meaning of gender? | Through their culture and environment |
| What explains the difference in behavior between the sexes? | It is what people are taught or have acquired through environment and experience |
| For children, is play just for fun or does it have a purpose? | has a purpose, both current and long term |
| How is play important? | healthy development of body and brain, children engage with world, use imagination, discover flexible ways to use objects and solve problems, prepare for adult roles |
| How can play help children's development? | simulate senses, exercise muscles, hand-eye coordination, mastery of body, make decisions, acquire skills, lay foundation for math concepts, negotiation, conflict resolution |
| What does the evolutionary theory say about play? | any activity that serves so many vital purposes at certain phase of life must have evolutionary basis |
| Describe the pros and cons of academically oriented videos and play things. | may be valuable in learning, but not if it affects child-directed play |
| Describe physical play in infancy. | aimless rhythmic movements |
| Describe physical play for preschoolers in early childhood. | as gross motor skills improve, exercise by run, jump, hop, skip, throw |
| Describe physical play in middle childhood. | rough-and-tumble play like wrestle, kick, chasing |
| What are 2 ways to categorize children's play? | cognitive complexity, social dimension |
| play involving repetitive large muscular movements | functional play |
| play involving use of objects or materials to make something | constructive play |
| play involving imaginary people or situations | dramatic play |
| What are the 4 categories of cognitive play (cognitive complexity)? | functional play, constructive play, dramatic play, games with rules |
| What are other names for dramatic play? | pretend play, fantasy play, imaginative play |
| What is the simplest category of cognitive play? | functional play |
| What is another name for functional play? | locomotor play |
| What is another name for constructive play? | object play |
| Describe constructive play and give an example. | use of objects or materials to make something, crayon drawing or house of blocks |
| What percent of children's time is spent in constructive play? | 10% to 15% |
| Describe dramatic play and give an example. | involves imaginary objects actions or roles and rests on symbolic function |
| When does dramatic play emerge? | during the last part of the second year |
| What is dramatic play based on? | ability to use symbols that stand for people or things |
| How does dramatic play change during the preschool years? | peaks, increase in frequency, complexity, declines in school age |
| When do formal games become popular with children? | school-age |
| Describe formal games with rules and give an example. | organized games with procedure and penalties, hopscotch and marbles |
| What domains of development does play contribute to? | all domains-cognition, emotion, language, sensorimotor |
| What might limit the amount of pretend play children participate in? | academically oriented kindergarten programs |
| Describe the change in dramatic play from age 2 to age 3 and 4. | age 2-imitative of caregiver, follow scripts; age 3 and 4-more imaginative, self-initiated |
| What might dramatic play strengthen? | dense connections in brain, capasity for abstract thought, social competence, linguistic competence, theory of mind skills |
| What occurs in the peak period of early childhood? | pretend play, recognizing false beliefs |
| According to the Evolutionary Theory, how does play benefit children? | 1) takes up time and energy, 2) characteristic age progression, 3) encouraged by parents, 4) occurs in all cultures |
| When does play peak and decline? | peak-childhood, decline-with sexual maturity |
| what benefits does play have for children? | aids bone development, muscle development, gives children a chance to master activities, develop a sense of capabilities, adult behavior in skills. |
| What do animal study suggests about evolution and a link to intelligence? | Birds and mammals play more intelligent, reptiles don't play, less intelligent. |
| Early _ play is common among all mammals and may support brain development. | Locomotor. |
| _ play may help develop muscle strength, endurance, physical skills, efficiency of movement. | Exercise. |
| _ is found primarily among primates. | Play with objects. |
| _ play strengthens social bonds, facilitates cooperation and lessons aggression, such as wrestling and chasing each other. | Social. |
| _ play seems to be almost exclusively human activity, practice adult skills for later in life. | Dramatic. |
| How is dramatic play encouraged by higher SES families? | Abundance of toys, absence of demands on children, heavy parental involvement in play, play based preschool curriculum. |
| How many types of play did Mildred Parten claimed there were? What do researchers think about this? | 6 types, too simplistic. |
| What are Mildred Parten’s 6 types of play? | Unoccupied behavior, onlooker behavior, solitary independent play, parallel play, associative play, cooperative or organize supplementary plane. |
| What does sociability have to do with Mildred Parten’s 6 types of play? | 6 levels of social play. |
| What did Parten suggest about the long-term effects of less social play? Has research found this to be true? | Child may develop social, psychological, educational problems, no. |
| What do researchers looked at in regards to children playing together? | Not whether a child plays alone, but why. |
| What might be positive reasons a child plays alone? | Simply prefer it that way. |
| What might be negative reasons a child plays a lung? | Shyness, anxiety, fearfulness, social rejection. |
| _ play, a combination of Parten’s unoccupied and onlooker categories and is often a manifestation of shyness. | Reticent play. |
| Which category of Parten’s social and nonsocial play is: child does not seem to be playing but watches anything of interest. | Unoccupied behavior. |
| Which category of Parten’s social and nonsocial play is: child watches other children play, talks, ask questions, make suggestions, does not interplay, observe specific children. | Onlooker behavior. |
| Which category of Parten’s social and nonsocial play is: child plays alone with toys that are different from those used by nearby children, makes no effort to get close to them. | Solitary independent play. |
| Which category of Parten’s social and nonsocial play is: plays independently, among other children, playing with the same toys, playing beside rather than with, does not try to influence. | Parallel play. |
| Which category of Parten’s social and nonsocial play is: plays with other children, talk about play, borrow and lend, control who may play in group, play similarly, acts independently, interested in being with others rather than activity itself. | Associative play. |
| Which category of Parten’s social and nonsocial play is: group organized for goal, make something/play formal games/dramatize, one or 2 children control who belong in group, direct activities, division of labor. | Cooperative or organized supplementary play. |
| How does dramatic play become more social during preschool years? | Playing with someone else, more collaborative, storylines more complex, practice intrapersonal language in skills, explore social conventions and roles, joint problem-solving, goal seeking, understand others' perspectives, construct image of social world. |
| Which type of play has imaginary companions? | Dramatic play. |
| How are children who have imaginary companions different from other children? | More imaginative, more cooperative, do not lack for friends, better on theory of mind tasks, greater emotional understanding. |
| How does sex segregation come about? | Middle childhood, biology, gender identification, adult reinforcement, peer influence. |
| How are boys and girls play different? | Boys-more physical, more vigorous, active, outdoor physical play, more spontaneous, dominant roles; girls-less physical, quiet, harmonious, one playmate, more structured activities, more dramatic play, nurturing roles. |
| What do cultural values affect in play? | Environment adults at that for children, frequency of specific forms of play. |
| How do preschoolers play? | To gather or on their own, socially or nonsocial he, functional, constructive, dramatic, games with rules |
| How does play contribute to and reflect development? | Older child gets, more sophisticated the play, cognitive, emotional, language, sensorimotor behavior growth |
| What are the 4 levels of cognitive play? | Functional play, constructive play, dramatic play, formal games with rules |
| What are the 6 categories of social and nonsocial play? | Unoccupied behavior, onlooker behavior, solitary independent play, parallel play, associative play, cooperative or organize supplementary play |
| How can the cognitive and social dimensions of play be connected? | Regardless of whether a child plays with others, they may be just as smart as others |
| How can gender influence the way children play? Give examples. | Affects what child does, how they do it, what type of play they are more likely to engage in |
| How can culture influence the way children play? Give examples. | Can be taught to be independent or interdependent, whether preschool children play or are taught, type of play engaged in, competitiveness. |
| Methods of molding children's character and of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in acceptable behavior | discipline. |
| Why can the word disciplining? | Instruction or training. |
| Use of physical force with the intention of causing pain, but not injury so as to correct or control behavior | corporal punishment. |
| What are 2 types of discipline? | Reinforcement, punishment. |
| Why do parents punish children? | Stop undesirable behavior. |
| Do children learn better from reinforcement or punishment? | Positive reinforcement. |
| type of reinforcement, child must see it as rewarding, receded fairly consistently after showing desired behavior | external reinforcement. |
| Eventually extern all reinforcement should become an _ reinforcement-a sense of pleasure. | Internal. |
| What is an effective punishment? | Isolation, denial of privilege, tied to a fence, immediate, calmly, in private, it was sitting compliance not guilt, accompanied by short explanation. |
| How can a harsh punishment be harmful to a child? | Child may have trouble interpreting other people's actions and words, may attribute hostile intentions where none exists, act aggressively, passive because they feel helpless, avoid punishing parent, undermine parents ability to influence behavior. |
| use of physical force with the intention of causing pain, but not injury so as to correct or control behavior | corporal punishment. |
| What are examples of corporal punishment? | Spanking, heading, slapping, pinching, shaking, other physical acts. |
| What can be risks of corporal punishment? | Physically harmful, injury, failed to internalize moral message, developed for relationships, increased physical aggression, antisocial behavior, counterproductive. |
| What does current research suggest for a child's punishment? | Positive reinforcement, brief timeouts, removal of privileges. |
| verbal attacks on a child by a parent that may result in psychological harm | psychological aggression. |
| What are 5 types of psychological aggression? | 1) yelling or screaming, 2) threatening to hit or spank, 3) swearing or cursing, 4) threatening to send child away or take out of house, 5) calling child dumb or lazy. |
| disciplinary techniques designed to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child's sense of reason and fairness | inductive techniques. |
| disciplinary strategy designed to discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control | power assertion. |
| disciplinary strategy that involves ignoring, isolating, showing dislike for child | withdrawal love. |
| Describe inductive techniques. | Setting limits, demonstrating logical consequences, explaining, discussing, negotiating, getting ideas from child about what is fair. |
| Which technique of discipline is the most effective method for getting children to accept parental standards? | Inductive techniques. |
| Describe power assertion. | Discipline through physical or verbal enforcement of parent, demands, threats, withdrawal of privilege, spanking. |
| Describe withdrawal love. | Ignoring child, isolation. |
| Which 2 out of the 3 techniques of discipline are ineffective, and why? | Power assertion, withdrawal love, may be harmful. |
| What may affect how well a child except a disciplinary method? | Understands and accepts parents message, fair and accurate, consistent about expectations, fit the discipline, child's empathy, culturally accepted. |
| What are the 5 forms of discipline? What is each methods effectiveness | Reinforcement-very, punishment-not much, inductive reasoning-very, power assertion-not much, withdrawal love-ineffective. |
| What might affect a child's response to the same situation? | Temperament, parenting style. |
| parenting style emphasizing control and obedience | authoritarian parenting. |
| parenting style emphasizing self-expression and self regulation | permissive parenting. |
| parenting style blending respect for a child's individuality with an effort to instill social body is | authoritative parenting. |
| What are the 4 types of parenting? | Authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, uninvolved (neglectful) |
| Describe authoritarian parenting. | Children conform to standard of contact, punish arbitrarily, forceful for violation. |
| What kind of parents use authoritarian parenting? How does this make the child feel? | Parents-more detached, less warm; children-disconnected, with drawled, distrustful. |
| Describe permissive parenting. | Parents make few demands, children monitor own activities, parents explain reasons for roles, children ask about policy decisions, parents rarely punish. |
| What kind of parents use permissive parenting? How does this make the child feel? | Parents-warm, noncontrolling, undemanding; children-immature, leased self-controlled, least exploratory. |
| Describe authoritative parenting. | Child's individuality, stresses social constraints, guide children, respect children's independent decisions, maintain standards, limited punishment, and ducked of discipline |
| What kind of parents use authoritative parenting? How does this make the child feel? | Parents-loving, accepting; children-loved, secure, most self reliant, self-controlled, self assertive, exploratory, content. |
| Described uninvolved parenting. | Parents focus on their needs rather than child, can cause behavioral disorders. |
| Why does authoritative parenting seem to enhance children's social competence? | Sensible expectations, realistic standards, consistent rules, independent choices, guided, no-win meeting expectations, cell commitments, participate actively in family duty, responsible. |
| What might be the key to the success of authoritative parenting? | Internalization of broader skills. |
| What are the 4 aspects of early support of parenting? | Warmth, inductive discipline, interest and involvement in children’s contact with peers, proactive teaching of social skills. |
| What innate factors did Baumrind’s parenting styles not consider? | Temperament, children's competence, influence on parents, cultural differences. |
| What are some differences between Western and non-Western parenting styles? | Reason for discipline, individuality, choice, freedom, discipline methods, reasoning with child. |
| How can parents’ way of resolving conflicts with young children contribute to the success of authoritative child-rearing? | Sensible expectations, amount of control, children no risk, fulfill commitment, participate in family duty. |
| What are criticisms of Baumrind’s parenting model? | Right way to raise a child, does not show cause and effect, parenting styles can change, temperament, children's competence. |
| How do you parenting practices influence development? | Can affect whether a child is discontent, with strong, distrustful, amount of control child has, relationship with parent, warmth in family, self control, self-reliant, exploration. |
| What are 3 issues of concern for parents, caregivers and teachers of preschool children? | Promote altruism, curb aggression, deal with fears. |
| Behavior intended to help others out of inner concern and without expectation of external reward | altruism |
| What may involve self-denial or self-sacrifice? | Altruism. |
| any voluntary behavior intended to help others | prosocial behavior. |
| What is at the heart of prosocial behavior? | Altruism. |
| What may contribute to individual differences in prosocial behavior? | Genes, environment. |
| How can prosocial behavior being urged? | Show affection, positive disciplinary strategies, point out prosocial behavior, cooperation, sharing, empathy, some the, generosity, helpfulness. |
| aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving the goal | instrumental aggression. |
| aggression that is openly directed at its target | overt aggression. |
| aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person’s relationships, reputation or psychological well-being | relational (social) aggression. |
| What is an example of instrumental aggression? | Children struggling over toys and control of space. |
| What is the most common type of aggression in early childhood? | Instrumental aggression. |
| True or false: the ability to show some instrumental aggression may be a necessary step and social development. | True. |
| _ is an exception to the generalization that boys and girls are more similar than different. | Aggression. |
| In what ways are boys more aggressive than girls? | Physically, verbally. |
| Describe relational aggression. | Subtle aggression, damaging or interfering with relationships, reputation, psychological well-being; often through teasing, manipulation, bids for control, rumor spreading, name-calling, excluding someone, overt or covert. |
| What can influence aggression? | Temperament, intensely emotional, low self control, genetics, environmental sources, parental behavior, attachment, maternal warmth, affection, stress, home atmosphere, discipline, social support, violence, stable Friendships. |
| What can foster social aggression? | Manipulative behavior, make child feel guilty or ashamed. What are some of the most common fears in preschool children? |
| What do young children's fears stem from? | Intense fantasy life, confuse appearance with reality |
| which are young children more likely to be scared of something that looks scary. Or something capable of doing harm? | Something that looks scary. |
| Describe older children's fears. | Realistic, self evaluated, know they are being evaluated by others. |
| Where can fears come from? | Personal experience, hearing about other people's experiences, triggered by events. |
| How can parents help prevent children's fears? | Instilling sense of trust, normal caution, not too protective, overcoming own fears, reassurance, encouragement, open expression of feelings. |
| What will not help a child get over their fears? | Ridicule, coercion, logical persuasion. |
| What can influence altruism? | Genes, environment, parent’s behavior. |
| What can influence aggression? | Gender, genes, environment, exposure to violence, parental behavior, stress, discipline, parenting style, friendships. |
| What can influence fearfulness? | Child's mind, how parent handles fear, parents fear, personal experience. |
| Why do young children help or hurt others? | Altruism, prosocial behavior, what they are taught to do, cultural influence. |
| Why do children develop fears? | Intense fantasy life, confuse appearance with reality, personal experience, hear about things. |
| Wednesday relationships with siblings and playmates become more important? | Early childhood. |
| What are the most frequent, earliest and most intense disputes among siblings? | Property rights-who owns it and who is entitled to play with it. |
| How can sibling disputes be viewed as socialization opportunities? | Children learn to stand up for principles, negotiate disagreements, joint dramatic play. |
| True or false: sibling rivalry is the main pattern between brothers and sisters in early life. | False. |
| What things are prevailing at and sibling relationships? | Affection, interest, companionship, influence, rivalry, play oriented behavior. |
| Which boy-girl pair plays better together? | Same sex girls. |
| How can the quality of sibling relationships carry over to relationships with other children? | Aggressive with sibling means aggressive with friends, play well with sibling means prosocial behavior. |
| How do older and younger siblings tend to behave in regards to each other? | Older siblings initiate behavior both friendly and unfriendly, younger siblings imitate older ones. |
| What are some positive factors of being an only child versus having siblings? | Motivated to achieve, slightly higher self-esteem, educational achievement, verbal intelligence. |
| In what ways do only children not lack opportunities for social interaction? | Playgroups, child care, preschool. |
| Regardless of age or sex, what disadvantage do children with siblings have over only children? | Higher levels of fear, anxiety, depression. |
| Why might only children do better with memory, language and mathematics skills than children with siblings? | Parents have more time for them, greater attention, stimulation, hopes, expectations. |
| At about what age do children began to have friends? | Age 3. |
| How do children learn how to get along with others? | Through friendship, interaction with casual playmates. |
| What do children learn from having friends? | learn that being a friend is a way to have a friend, how to solve problems in relationships, put itself in another person's place, moral values, gender role norms, practices adult roles. |
| What are traits the young children look for in a friend? | Do things together, like and care for each other, share and help one another, live nearby, go to same school, same size, similar appearance, affection, support, prosocial. |
| What are her traits that young children rejected in a friend? | Disruptive, demanding, intrusive, aggressive. |
| How do young children get along with or without siblings? | With siblings-affection, interest, influence, rivalry; without-do the same or more motivated, day care for friends |
| How do young children get along with or without playmates and friends? | People to play with, learn to get along, reject, demanding or aggressive children. |
| How does the resolution of sibling disputes contribute as socialization? | Learn to stand up for principles, negotiate disagreements. |
| How can birth order and gender affect typical patterns of sibling interaction? | Older sibling initiates behavior, younger sibling imitates, same sibling girls get along better than boy-girl pair. |
| Compare the development of only children with children of siblings. | Only children do the same if not a little better because parents can be dedicated to only them. |
| How do preschoolers choose playmates and friends? | Get along with, same age and sex, positive experiences, like and care for each other, share and help one another, like same things |
| How do preschoolers behave with friends? | Being a friend is the way to have a friend, nice to each other |
| How do preschoolers benefit from friendships? | Learn how to solve problems, put selves in another person's place, moral values, gender role norms, practices adult roles. |
| How does the self concept develop during early childhood? | Self-definition, single representation, representational mapping. |
| In early childhood, can young children see the difference between the real self and the ideal solve? | No. |
| Can culture affect the self-definition? | Yes. |
| How do children show self-esteem? | Global, unrealistic, reflects adult approval |
| How do children show emotional growth? | Understanding of emotion directed toward the self and simultaneous emotions develops gradually |
| How do children show initiative? | They want to do more and more, learned that some things don't meet social approval |
| What is Erikson's developmental stage for early childhood? What is the virtue of this conflict? | Initiative versus guilt, purpose. |
| _ is an aspect of the developing self concept. | Gender identity. |
| What is the main difference between genders in early childhood? | Boys-aggressiveness; girls-empathetic, prosocial, less problem behavior. |
| Children learn gender roles at an early age through _. | Gender typing. |
| Windows gender typing pique? | Preschool years. |
| What are the 5 major perspectives on gender development? | Biological, evolutionary, psychoanalytic, cognitive, social learning. |
| What does the evidence suggests about some gender differences? | May be biologically-based. |
| What does the evolutionary theory see children's genders roles as? | Perforation per adult mating behavior. |
| According to the Freudian theory, what occurs between the child and the parent? | A child identifies with the same sex parent after giving up the wish to possess the other parent. |
| What does the cognitive developmental theory maintain about gender identity? | Develops from thinking about once gender. |
| According to Kohlberg, what leads to the acquisition of gender roles? | Gender consistency. |
| According to the gender schema theory, how do children categorize gender related information? | Observing what males and females do in their culture. |
| According to the social cognitive theory, how do children learn about gender roles? | Socialization, parents, peers, media, cultural influence gender typing. |
| How do boys and girls become aware of the meaning of gender? | According to the perspective of gender development they are looking at, biologically, environmentally, culturally, observing. |
| What explains differences in behavior between the sexes? | Environmental, genetic, gender typing. |
| How do preschoolers play? | Functional play, constructive play, dramatic play, formal games with rules |
| How does play contribute to and reflect of development? | Shows cognitive and social development |
| What benefits does play have? | Physical, cognitive, psychosocial. |
| What can reflect changes in the types of play children engage in? | Cognitive and social development. |
| According to Smilanky, how do children progress cognitively through play? | Functional play, constructive play, dramatic play, formal games with rules. |
| When does dramatic play become common? How does it help children? | During early childhood, develop social and cognitive skills. |
| What types of play emerge in early childhood? | Dramatic play, rough and tumble play. |
| According to Parten, when does play become more social? What does research say about this? | Early childhood, nonsocial play is not necessarily immature. |
| Who do children prefer to play with? | Others of the same sex. |
| Why can cognitive and social aspects of play be influenced by? | Culturally approved environment adults create. |
| How do parenting practices influence development? | Can affect a child's respect, cognitive development, how the child behaves. |
| What can be a powerful tool for socialization? | Discipline. |
| What can be appropriate tools of discipline? What does the parent-child relationship have to be like? | Positive reinforcement, prudently administered punishment, positive parent-child relationship. |
| What are the 3 categories of discipline? | Power assertion, inductive techniques, withdraw of love |
| What kind of consequences can spanking and other forms of corporal punishment have? | Negative. |
| _ is generally the most effective and _ the least effective in promoting internalization of parental standards. | Reasoning, power assertion. |
| What are the 4 parenting styles? | Authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, uninvolved. |
| Who tends to raise the most competent children? | Authoritative parents. |
| Can Baumrind’s findings of parenting styles be applied to all cultures? | No. |
| Why do young children help others? | Altruism, prosocial behavior, inborn disposition, parental modeling, encouragement. |
| What is the most common aggression in early childhood? | Instrumental aggression, 1st physical then verbal. |
| What kind of aggression do boys tend to have? | Overt aggression. |
| What kind of aggression do girls tend to have? | Relational aggression. |
| Why do young children hurt others? | Aggression, temperament, parental modeling. |
| Why do children develop fears? | Past events were scary looking things. |
| Describe preschool children's fear. | Real and imaginary objects and events. |
| Describe older children's fear. | More realistic fear. |
| Describe most sibling interactions. | Positive. |
| Describe older siblings and younger siblings activities. | Older siblings initiate, younger siblings imitate. |
| Which sibling pairs get along best? | Same sex, especially girls. |
| How do siblings tend to resolve disputes? | Basis of moral principles. |
| True or false: the kind of relationship children how with siblings often carries over into other peer relationships. | True. |
| True or false: only children develop at least as well as children with siblings. | True. |
| What kind of playmates and friends to preschoolers choose? | Friends who are like them, with whom they have positive experiences. |
| What kinds of children are least popular? | Aggressive children. |
| What kinds of children are most popular? | Prosocial children. |
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