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APES 1st Semester
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Soil | renewable |
| 2 Major Factors in Soil Erosion | wind and flowing water |
| Desert soil | hot, dry climate = weak humus, reddish/brown |
| Grassland soil | semiarid climate = alkaline (basic) dark |
| Tropical rain forest soil | humid, tropical climate = acidic light |
| Deciduous forest soil | humid, mild climate = forest leaf litter, humus/minerals, grayish brown loam, dark brown firm clay |
| Coniferous forest soil | humid, cold climate = acid litter, light |
| If too acid | add lime (an alkaline substance) |
| If too basic | Add sulfur |
| Clay | Smallest; very fine particles |
| silt | Medium fine particles |
| sand | Large |
| O Horizon | surface leaf litter (twigs, leaves, fungi, etc.) |
| A horizon | top soil layer (includes humus, fertile soil) |
| B horizon | subsoil (inorganic matter) |
| C horizon | parent material (like broken down rock) |
| Ocean circulation | helps moderate the earth’s avg. surface temperature by removing 29% of CO2 from the atmosphere |
| littoral zone | shallow sunlit water near shore/to depth plants stop growing |
| limnetic zone | open sunlit surface layer away from shore/produces food for the lake |
| ENSO | Western |
| Main factors affecting climate | temperature and precipitation |
| Mesosphere | coldest layer above strato., Temp DECREASES as you go up |
| Thermosphere | uppermost layer, Temp. increases as you go up |
| Troposphere | lowest layer, includes us, weather (T for TROPICAL), 75 |
| Stratosphere | above troposphere, holds ozone |
| transform fault | slide past each other |
| Biological populations | a group of interacting individuals of the same species that occupy a specific area at the same time |
| Communities | populations of different species that occupy a particular place |
| native species | normally live there |
| non native species | Successful because |
| Intraspecific competition | b/t members of the same species |
| Interspecific competition | b/t 2 or more different species for food, space, etc. |
| Interference competition | one may limit another’s access to some resource |
| Explotative competition | one species can use a resource faster (exploit it);humans do this often |
| Desert | evaporation exceeds precipitation |
| Grassland | nough rain for grass to live, but not enough for big trees, can be |
| Tropical Grassland/Savanna | Africa, warm all year, 2 long dry seasons, grazing animals |
| Temperate Grassland | cold winter/hot & dry summers, prairie grass, *used to grow crops |
| Chaparral | temperate shrubland along coastal areas, naturally maintained w/periodic fires (people in this area – like CA, experience fire loss often) |
| Polar Grassland/Artic Tundra | v. cold, no trees, ice/snow, reindeer/caribou (don’t hibernate instead have thick coats), has spongy mat of short plants which grow during 6 |
| Alpine tundra– | above limit of tree growth, similar to arctic tundra, has no permafrost |
| Forest– | mod. to high precipitation, lots of trees/smaller vegetation |
| Temperate Forest | avg. rain and change significantly during the seasons, deciduous forests (*lose leaves in winter) including: oak, hickory, maple, poplar, many plants at ground level – have been cleared to make tree plantations |
| Evergreen Coniferous Forest (called boreal or taiga) | v. cold winters, short, mild summers, cone bearing trees with leave yr round, low plant diversity, slow decomposition of leaf litter |
| Thermal Stratification | summer epilimnion: upper layer w/high DO, thermocline: temp changes rapidly, hypolimnion: lower layer, cold dense water where nutrients stay |
| Cold water (more/less dense than hot?) | More |
| Water most dense at | 4 degrees C/39 degrees F |
| Source zone | (turbulent headwaters, lots DO, fish w/flattened bodies) |
| Transition zone | headwaters merge = wider, deeper streams = more producers, lower DO |
| Floodplain zone | streams join into rivers that meander across valleys, higher temp, less DO, empty into ocean |
| Aerobic respiration | Glucose + oxygen CO2 + water + energy |
| Anaerobic respiration | breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen; products are methane (CH4), ethyl alcohol, acetic acid (Vinegar), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) |
| Trophic levels | Feeding Level |
| Producers | (plants = self |
| Primary consumers | (herbivores = plant eaters) are in the second trophic level |
| Secondary consumers | (omnivores/carnivores) are in the third trophic level |
| Tertiary consumers | usually the top in a energy pyramid; are in the fourth trophic level (smallest) |
| Most vulnerable species to extinction/endangerment | at top because they require most food to survive |
| Americans are usually | tertiary consumers |
| Ecological pyramids | 90% of useable energy is LOST when transferred from one species to another; creates a pyramid of energy flow |
| Energy pyramid | (self |
| Detritivores | (feed on parts of dead organisms) |
| Detritus feeders | crabs/carpenter ants/termites; extract nutrients from leaf litter/plant debris |
| Directional Natural Selection–changing conditions cause individuals at one end average to become more common than mid | range – “it pays to be different” |
| Stabilizing Natural Selection | eliminates individuals on either end of genetic spectrum, favors individuals w/avg. genetic makeup – “pays to be average” |
| Diversifying | environmental conditions favor individuals at both extremes; “it does not pay to be normal” |
| Co | evolution |
| Wetlands Services | free water purification service, Natural biological pest control |
| Nitrogen Fixation | In the WATER: Cyannobacteria, In the SOIL, Rhizobium bacteria, (live in Legumes) CONVERT Atmospheric Nitrogen to ammonia and the ammonium ion. |
| Nitrification | Aerobic Bacteria in the soil convert the ammonium ion to nitrites then to nitrates which plants absorb. |
| Ammonification | Decomposer bacteria and fungi cause the residues of ammonia to dissolve into the ammonium ion. |
| Denitrification | Anaerobic bacteria convert ammonia and the ammonium ion back to nitrite and nitrate ions then to atmospheric nitrogen and finally to nitrous oxide which return to the atmosphere to start the cycle again. |
| Assimilation– | Plants use (uptake nutrients) |
| Too little iron | anemiafatigue/infections/infant death |
| Too little Iodine | goiterstunted growth/mental retardation |
| Diet low in calories/protein | marasmus |
| Kwashiorkor | severe protein deficiency stunted growth/mental retardation |
| Reduce Population | family planning; birth spacing; birth control; health care for pregnant women and infants; empowering women/education education, women’s rights; offer incentives/penalties for less kids |
| infant mortality rate | **which is the single most important measure of a society’s quality of life |
| World | 6.3Billion |
| US | 300Million (3rd largest population) |
| Replacement-level fertility | # children a couple must have to replace themselves |
| Total fertility rate (TFR) | estimate of avg. # of children a woman will have during childbearing years if she bears children at the same rate women did this yr |
| Annual Rate of pop. change (%) | Birth – Death/10 if pop=1000 |
| Doubling time | 70 / %growth rate (NOT IN DECIMAL) |
| Pre-industrial | little growth b/c harsh living conditions = high birth rate + high death rate |
| Transitional stage | (most developing countries now) – industrialization begins, health care improves, death rates drop, birth rates stay high |
| Industrial stage (many developed countries) | birth rates drop, slower population growth |
| Post-industrial stage | birth rates decline further, get zero population growth |
| Surface mining | safer than sub-surface |
| open-pit mining | machines dig holes and remove ores |
| dredging | chain buckets/draglines scrape underwater mineral deposits |
| Area strip-mining | strip away overburden and remove minerals (used on flat surface |
| Mountain removal | Explode off mountain top and mine |
| Sub-surface mining | dangerous, removes deep deposits, disturbs less land/produces less waste material |
| Room and pillar | machine out all but a pillar to hold up mine roof |
| Longwall mining | steel props support mine roof |
| General Mining Law of 1872 | allows mining companies to take minerals from public land without paying royalties |
| Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), 1977 | regulates the environmental effects of coal mining (sets standards) |
| Trawler fishing | huge funnel shaped net drags along ocean floor, destroys bottom habitat and catches seals/turtles |
| Purse-seine fishing | drawstring net goes around school of fish like tuna – kills dolphin which swim near tuna |
| Longlining | 80mile long line w/thousands of baited hooks |
| Drift-net fishing | fish caught in huge drifting nets (leads to overfishing) |
| Fish farming | cultivating fish in a controlled environment) |
| Fish ranching | holding fish in captivity, releasing them to spawn, then harvesting them |
| Fishing Conservation Act | aims to end overfishing, |
| Clean Water Act | aims to cut down on pollution of surface water |
| 1961 Federal Water Pollution Control Act | surface water quality protection (amended to become the Clean Water Act) |
| 1963 Clear Air Act | established air quality standards |
| 1964 Wilderness Act | restrict activities in national preserves |
| 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act | regulated treatment, storage, disposal of hazardous wastes |
| 1968 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act | environmental policy for rivers |
| 1970 National Environmental Policy Act | created council to monitor environmental quality (resulted in the creation of the EPA) |
| 1987 Montreal Protocol | signed by many countries, goal was to reduce CFC emissions (help heal the ozone layer) |
| 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act | protects marine animals |
| 1973 Endangered Species Act | protects endangered species (KNOW!!!!) |
| 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act | monitors drinking water quality |
| 1976 Toxic Substance Control Act | control/testing of chemicals that could hurt people or the environment |
| 1977 Soil and Water Conservation Act | soil/water conservation programs to help land owners |
| 1980 Superfund bill (Also called CERCLA – Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act) | tax on chemical/petroleum companies who release hazardous chemicals – pays to clean up hazardous waste sites |
| 1985 Food Security Act | discourages the conversion of wetlands to non-wetlands |
| 1990 Pollution Prevention Act | designed to stop pollution from being produced |
| Green Taxes | raise taxes on things that cause pollution/tax incentives to things that do not pollute |
| Wilderness areas (pg627) | provide mostly undisturbed habitats for wild plants/animals, provide a natural lab to discover how nature works…preserves biodiversity, protect them as centers of evolution |
| Wildlife refuges (pg586) | Visited to hike, hunt, fish. |
| National Forests (pg610) | managed according to: sustainable yield and Multiple use – including: timber harvesting, recreation, livestock grazing, wildlife… |
| Malnourishment | shortage of adequate vitamins/minerals: |
| Kwashiorkor | lack of protein = swollen abdomen |
| Marasmus | lack of protein/calories = skeletal thinness/wrinkled skin |
| Anemia | lack of Iron = low energy/fatigue |
| Ariboflavinosis | Vit. B2 deficiency (one of the most common in the US) = skin problems, sore mouth |
| Goiter/Hyperthyroidism | iodine deficiency…salt |
| Rickets | Vit D deficiency (not enough Calcium) |
| Vit. A deficiency | poor vision |
| Scurvy | Vic. C deficiency = loose teeth/black and blue skin |
| Traditional subsistence | farm for family |
| Traditional intensive | farm for family and income (more intense to do income too) |
| First Green Revolution | monoculture, high yields, more crops/land |
| Second Green Revolution | dwarf plans, greater yeild |
| Fuel cell | 60% |
| Steam turbine | 45% |
| Coal | 30% |
| Human Body | 20-25% |
| Fluorescent light | 22% |
| Gas engine | 10% |
| Nuclear | 8% |
| Incandescent light | 5% |
| Photosynthesis (energy from sun) | 1% |
| Ionic compounds | metal combined w/non-metal; STRONGEST |
| Covalent Compounds | 2 non-metals combined |
| Metallic bonds | weakest bond |
| Hydrocarbons | CH4 (methane) , C3H9 (butane) |
| Chlorinated hydrocarbons | contain Cl, H, C; ex: DDT, PCBs |
| Chlorofluorocarbons | contains Cl, F, C; these hurt the ozone layer; ex: Freon (in air conditioning/refrigerator coolants) |
| Carbohydrates | (simple sugars 1:2:1 Ratio): C6H12O6 (glucose – broken down by most plants/animals to obtain energy) |
| Ions | electrically charged atoms (anytime you see a charge): H+, Cl-, Mg+2, etc. |
| Atomic number | # of protons an atom has |
| Mass # | mass of an atom: just count protons + neutrons |
| Isotopes | same element, atoms that have a DIFFERENT # of protons and neutrons |
| pH | measure of concentration of H+ in a water solution 1.0 x 10^(-pH #) |
| First Law of Thermodynamics | energy is neither created nor destroyed, it can only be converted from one form to another (energy input is always = to energy output!) |
| Second Law of Thermodynamics | when energy is changed from one form to another, some is ALWAYS degraded to lower-quality, less useful energy (usually HEAT) |
| 1 Watt= | 1 J / sec |
| Power= | Energy / time (Watts = Joules/time) |
| Lead | old houses, paints, leaded gas (bioaccumulation/biomagnification – brain damage) |
| Ultimate Sink | Ocean |
| Clean Water Act | sets water quality standards |
| RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) | requires EPA to identify hazardous waste and set management standards, makes firms that handle more than 220 pounds of hazardous waste/month to have a permit, has a cradle-to-grave system to keep track of waste through its entire lifetime |
| Cleanup of brownfields | (abandoned industrial/commercial sites that were contaminated) so that they can be used as parks/recreational areas (Congress has enacted laws that limit liability of those who redevelop the area) |
| Lead | toxic neurotoxin that can harm the nervous system of young children and babies – caused by lead-based paints/leaded gasoline (both of which have now been banned in the US – but not other countries) |
| Mercury | potent neurotoxin that can harm brain/spinal cord – comes from waste incineration, coal burning – often humans are exposed because of biomagnification/bioaccumulation from fish |
| Dioxins | carcinogen - unwanted by-product of industrial processes (incineration of municipal and medical wastes – involving chlorine and hydrocarbons) – TCDD is most toxic, found in food supply |
| Hazardous waste | any discarded solid/liquid material that (1)contains one or more of 39 toxic carcinogenic, mutagenic compounds at levels exceeding established limits, (2) catches fire easily, (3) is reactive, (4) can corrode metal containers |
| Lead | neurotoxin – found in old paint and leaded gas |
| Mercury | neurotoxin – mainly from bioaccumulation/biomagnification in fish |
| Chlorine | bad for stratospheric ozone and human health – caused by paper and pulp bleaching |
| Dioxins | chlorinated hydrocarbons from industrial processes – TCDD is most toxic and very persistent |
| Bioremediation | using microorganisms and enzymes to convert hazardous substances to harmless compounds – works well with organic wastes only (inexpensive, but can take a long time) |
| Phytoremediation | using natural plants (poplar, sunflower, clover, mustard) to filter/remove contaminants – effective on pesticides, radioactive metals, and toxic metals (lead, mercury) |
| Incineration | burn waste, can reduce trash volume, but greatly increases air pollution (dioxins) |
| Reduction of Pollution | best solution is always prevention (reduce, reuse, recycle) |
Created by:
kittycrunk
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