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Physiology 335
Exam I
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| physiology | mechanisms of body function from cells to the whole body;separately and integrated. |
| cells | Functional units;samllest unit of body that still meets criteria of life.Have unique problems within the body(get food/oxygen with all other cells around and get rid of waste other cells bathe it in. Solution is cell specializaton. |
| cell types | 1.epithelial-selective excretion/absorption and protection 2.connective tissue-anchor and support 3.nerve-communication 4.muscle-generate mechanical forces=movement *200 different cell types in these four groups |
| body fluid compartments | Extracellular fluid(14L)=plasma(3L)+interstitial fluid(11L)/Intracellular fluid(28L)=blood cells in capillaries(2L)+body cells(26L)/ECF is homogeneous except more proteins in plasma/ICF helps maintain differences and regulate cell activity. |
| homeostasis(Ex.of regulated things=Na+,K+,Ca2+,pH,[Glu],O2,CO2,temp.,[blood pressure] | Common physiological variables are maintained within a predicatble range;Mechanisms detect deviation from set-point and respond in opposite direction;Has dynamic constancy-Levels change over short periods but remain constant over long periods of time. |
| negative feedback | Most common way to maintain condition of ECF;changes variable to move in opposite direction of original change.Controls compensatory responses to contain homeostasis. |
| Afferent and efferent pathways in homeostasis (circle) Ex.temperature | Change from norm(stimulus),receptor(sensory neuron detects change),afferent pathway(nerves),integratin center(set-point value housed here, compare and if different=response),efferent pathway(blood vessel),effector(organ),response(reverse),neg.feedback |
| Positive feedback (only three instances in human body 1.childbirth 2.breast feeding 3.ovulation) | Accelates process and leads to explosion; needs to have a terminating event to stop(Ex.baby coming out) |
| Feedfoward | Anticipates changes in regulated variables=speeds up homeostatic responses=less deviation from the set-point.Result of learning.Ex.intestine activity increases before a meal(stomach rumbling) |
| plasma membranes | selective barrier;signals can alter;confines products of chemical rxn;phospholipid bilayer and amphipathic(hydrophilic/polar head group and hydrophobic/np tails);fluid mosaic;has proteins to assist movement of ions/molec.s,carbohydrates, and cholesterol. |
| transmembrane proteins | proteins that go all the way through the p.mem. and transport chemicals,ions,water across. Combo of phospholipids/proteins makes it selectively permeable. |
| integral membrane proteins | closely assoc. with membrane, if removed=disruption. Can be either transmembrane or not. |
| peripheral membrane proteins | On membrane surface bound to polar regions of integral mem. proteins;not amphipathic. |
| nucleus | storage/transmission of genetic info. to next cell generation. |
| nuclear envelope | barrier;has nuclear pores for RNA to come in; double membrane |
| chromatin | DNA;becomes chromosomes during division. |
| nucleolus | no membrane;regions of DNA that have genes to form RNA;RNA and protein assembled here |
| ribosomes | make proteins from amino acids;composed of proteins and RNA |
| endoplasmic reticulum | smooth-no ribosomes;branched,tubular stucture;symthesis of lipids, stores/releases Ca2+. rough-has ribosomes attacthed;flattened appearance;involved in protein packaging and secretion |
| golgi aparatus | proteins from ER undergo series of changes, sorted and secreted |
| endosomes | membrane-bound vesicular structures that pinch off |
| mitochondria | produces energy from chemical bonds to ATP;cellular respiration;inner layer(folded cristae) and outer layer mem.(smooth) |
| lysosomes | break down bacteria/debris;important to defense |
| peroxisomes | consumes molecular oxygen to remove hydrogen from lipids,alcohol;product=H2O2;break down fatty acids |
| vaults | important for molecular transport b/w cytosol and nucleus;drug sensitivity |
| cytoskeleton | protein filaments in cytoplasm that maintain shape and produce movement;3 types:1.microfilaments(Mj.portion)2.intermediate filaments(less readily disassembled)3.microtubules |
| cytoplasm vs cytosol | cytoplasm=everything b/w nucleus and p.mem. and cytosol=only the fluid |
| "life" | ability to locally violate the 2nd law of thermodynamics(universe tends towards disorder);cells maintain the nonrandom distribution of molec.s across the mem.=homeostasis maintains life. |
| diffusion | over time, molecules placed in solvent will equally distribute themselves because of thermal motion/random collisions of molec.s.Diffusion equillibrium=concentrations of each compartment are equal so NET flux=0.Useful for cell dimensions,bigger= too LONG |
| thermal motion | all molec.s in continuous state of movement/vibration because of constant collisions.warmer=faster,bigger=slower,more molecs=faster,more surface area=faster,medium matters too(Ex.air is slower than water); move from high conc. to low |
| net flux | difference b/w two one-way fluxes; therefore, always 3 different fluxes for every surface.Increases with bigger gradient and surface area. |
| permeabilty of membrane dependent on: | ion channels and hydrophobic(lipid soluble[O2,CO2,steroids,fatty acids]) and hydrophilic(large polar molecs and ions) |
| Channel types | opening of channles results from conformational changes in integral proteins.Channels selective for certain ions and/or gated by electrical(accumulation of charger),chemical(NTs),mechanical(touch,pressure)events |
| electrochemical gradient | Membranes can be charged and charge AND gradient influences flux of ion. |
| carrier-mediated transport | three types:1.facilitated(flux in same direction as predicted by gradient) 2.primary active transport 3.secondary active transport(2and3 have flux opposite of predicted by gradient) |
| faciliated diffusion | down concetration gradient;NO energy required.Molec binds, protein clicks then molec diffuses out to other side. Ex. glucose entry into cells |
| primary active transport (Ex. Na+/K+-ATP-ase pump!) | against gradient(creates one) and uses energy by DIRECTLY splitting ATP.3Na+ and ATP bind, ADP ripped off and P left=conformational change so Na not comfy and released on other side,2 K+ come in P leaves=conformational change and K leaves on other side. |
| secondary active transport | against concentration gradient and energy provided by another molecs'gradient(usually Na[binds to create affinity for solute to attatch).Cotransport:ion and second solute cross mem. in same direction vs countertransport. Needs primaryAT near for gradient |
| Factors that influence flux | in diffusion, only limited by gradient(=HIGH flux rate). In carrier-mediated limited by # of transport proteins,extent of saturation, of binding sites, and comformational change in transport protein. |
| osmosis | net diffiusion of water across a mem. facilitated by aquaporins so faster.Movement of water equalizes the solute.More solute=less water.Ions lower water conc in proportion to # of ions.(Ex. NaCl=1molNa,1molCl=2mol solute=lower water 2x as much. |
| osmole vs moles | all particles to be counted vs Avogadro's number of specific particle. |
| osmolarity | total solute concentration of all solutes;more osmolarity= less water conc.If only permeable to water same conc will be reached but only water will move= diff amount of water on each side.usually 285-300 mOsm in ECF/ICF. |
| osmotic pressure | pressure that must be applied to soln. to prevent net flow of water into it. more osmolarity=more osmotic pressure needed. |
| isotonic solution(only nonpenetrating solute) | solution that does NOT cause change in cell size; solute conc inside=outside |
| hypotonic solution (only nonpenetrating solutes) | Solute is lower in ECF than usual=water moves into cell=swells |
| hypertonic soution (only nonpenetrating solutes) | Solute is higher in ECF than usual=water moves out of cell=shrinks |
| isoosmotic(300mOsm/L),hypoosmotic(less than 300),hyperosmotic(greater than 300) solutions | tells of osmolarity of solution regardless of whether or not the solution is penetrating or nonpenetrating. |
| endocytosis | entry into cell;process to move large particles, use vesicles;require ATP and membrane proteins.1.phagocytosis 2.pinocytosis-cell drinking 3.receptor-mediated |
| phagocytosis/pinocytosis | "cell-eating"Engulf bacteria, fuse into vesicles, migrate and fuse to lysosomes.Only special cells have like immune system.Pinocytosis same but with liquid-like particles. |
| receptor-mediated | specific molecs bind to specific receptors=conformtional change.Clathrin protein goes to p.mem. and forms clathrin-coated pit=pinch off=form vesicle.Localize receptors=more concentrated=don't have to engulf so much ECF;Clathrins recycled. Ex.cholesterol |
| potocytosis | receptor-mediated type restricted by ligands to small molecs.Tiny caveolae pinch off and deliver contents to the cytosol.Help in cell signaling and transport. |
| exocytosis | exit from cell;usually through ER,golgi,vesicle,fuse w/ p.mem. and out.Replaces p.mem. so stays constant. |
| central nervous system | brain and spinal cord |
| peripheral nervous system | nerves that connect CNS to muscles,glands,organs,sensory organs.Divided into 1.somatic and 2.autonomic. and 2 divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic.Helps homeostasis cuz receives info from external environ/ECF,integrates,directs cell activities. |
| afferent division of PNS | somatic sensory(sensing your body),visceral sensory(sensations of organs),special sensory(five sense).Towards CNS. |
| efferent division of PNS | somatic motor(conscious use of skeletal muscles),automoic motor(mostly unconscious;sympathetic[fight or flight],parasympathetic[rest and digest],enteric).Exiting CNS. |
| neurons | individual nerve cell;basic unit of NS;generate electrical signals=NTs to release and communicate with other cells. |
| neuronal structure | dendrites/soma=receive info(graded pot.),initial segment(axon hillock)=info integrated/decide if fire,axon collateral=branching(More=bigger influence),axon=carry info(AP)away,axon terminal=(tons of processes)communicate w/ dendrites of neighboring neuron. |
| glial cells | 90% of NS cells;surround soma,axon,dendrites and provide physical/metabolic support. |
| Three types of glial cells | 3 types:1.oligodendroctye-forms myelin sheath around CNS axons(Schwann cells does for PNS)2.astroctye-regulate comp. of ECF/stimulates tight junction formation=blood-brain barrier3.microglia-macrophage-like specialized for CNS. |
| neuronal communication | based on changes in mem. permeability to ions. results in graded potential or action potential. |
| membrane potentials | seperated charges=potential to do work; phospholipid bilayer=high electrical resistance and open ion channels=low resistance=current;cells each have own potential.at rest=negative(-70).most of ECF/ICF is electroneutral(tiny #ions=change in potential) |
| establishing the resting membrane potential | Na+/K+ ATPase pump sets up and maintains concentration gradients;K+ dominated (leak channels) |
| Nernst Equation | E_k = (61/z)(log[Ko]/log[Ki]) ; Nernst potential = how many ions leave to make electrical gradient (K = -90mV Na = +60mV) |
| Steady State | Constant but needs energy vs. equilibrium does not need energy |
| Chloride | Two cases: 1(most common); RMP sets the Cl-, Cl- adjusts to match. 2(minor); Cl- pumping out=less likely to depolarize. |
| Membrane Potential Changes | -70 = polarized. depolarized=towards zero. overshoot=charge reversal. repolarize=back towards resting. hyperpolarize=more negative. |
| Graded Potential | proportional to size of stimulus, decrease with distance from stimulus, can depolarize/hyperpolarize,can summate, short distance signals that rely only on ionic currents |
| Action Potential | ion increases permeability of membrane=AP driven to equilibrium potential of that ion;fast voltage gated depolarization=channel confirmational changes(Na+,ball and chain,open/closed/inactivated).slow depolarization favors open/closed channels(K+) |
| Action Potential | needs stimulus strong enough to = threshold(-55) & cause positive feedback(threshold stimulus);propagation of AP=1-way(absolute refractory period,Na+ open/inactivated);all or none,cannot summate,propagate over long distances(do not decrease with distance) |
| Action Potential Propagation | 1.unmye.=slow 2.mye.=fast(saltatory conduction);Schwann's cells make mye. in PNS & oligodendrocytes make in CNS;no Na+ chanels under mye.=AP jump from nodes of Ranvier;velocity incr. w/ axon diam EX mye.=speed=motor neurons/nonmye.=no hurry=digestive reg |
| Synaptic Transmission | convergence 4:1 vs divergence 1:4 1. elect. EX. gap junctions-conduct electrical signals forom cell to cell(fast),found b/w heart&smooth muscle cells 2. chem;AP propagates to terminal Ca chanels open and flow in=vesicle exocytosis=NTs diffuse across cleft |
| Post-synaptic excitatory events (chemical) | 1. NT binds to receptor 2. ligand gated chanels open 3. cations flow through(Na+) 4. net effect=depolarization(EPSP) |
| Post-synaptic inhibitory events (chemical) | 1. same 2. same 3. either K+ out of Cl- in 4. hyperpolarization/prevent depolarization(Cl-);IPSP |
| Chemical synaptic transmission | post-synaptic potentials=short because 1. NT rapidly binds/unbinds 2. NT reuptake into presynaptic terminal/destruction 3. NT diffuse away from synapse |
| Temporal summation vs Spatial summation | A. 1 synaptic neuron keeps firing=adds if in time(graded potential). B. 2+ input to neuron,effect of 2 neuronal stimulation added up in space. helps reach threshold |
| IPSP vs EPSP | receptor determines if IP or EP,but some NT consistantly one or other EX. acetylcholine=excitatory,NE/Epi=depends,glutamate=excitatory GABA and glycine=inhibitory |
| Presynaptic inhibition/facilitation | facilitation=increase in depolarization and NT release. inhibition decreases depolarization/NT release(axo-axonic neuron;A influences B w/ indirect effect on C) |
| Neuromodulators (*second messenger systems Ex. signal trasnduction pathway) | presynaptic inhibition/facilitation. effects strength of synapse,small peptides released w/ NT,activate 2nd messengers,can interact w/ pre/post-receptors |
| Chemical Synaptic Transmission 2 | 1. long-term potentiation(cellular mechanism of learning/memory) 2. persistance of NT=desensitization 3. synapses vulnerable to drug/disease |
| Drug/Disease Effect on Synaptic Transmission | 1. Tetanus toxin disrupts NT release(protease eats SNAREs=no vesicle fusion);alter CNS IPSPs=lockjaw 2. Botulism same cause;notable effects in periphery Ex.face-lift=no wrinkles=no control of face 3. Cocaine prevent NT uptake=keep euphoria going |
| Drugs/Diseases Continued | 4. Seratonin Reuptake Inhibitors seratonin kept in synapse=alter mood=depression prescription 5. Ethanol reduced glutamate effects and increased GABA effects=inhibitory |
| Agonists vs Antagonists | A. same response as NT B. block response to NT by occupying the receptors |
| Possible Drug Effects on Synaptic Effectiveness | Increased NT release into synapse,prevention of NT release into synapse,reduced reuptake of NT from synapse,reduced degradation of NT in synapse |
| Central Nervous System | Brain=forebrain(cerebrum/diencephalon[thalamus/hypothalamus]);brainstem=midbrain,pons,medulla oblongata;cerebellum;cerebrum(cortex=grey matter,white matter[axons and myelin]);limbic system functions in learning,emotion,apetite,sex |
| Peripheral Nervous System | 1. somatic-single neuron between CNs and muscle cells,enervates skeletal muscle,inly excitation. 2. autonomic-2neuron chain between CNS and effector organ,enervates smooth/cardiac/glands/GI neurons,excitatory or inhibitory depends on receptor |
| Autonomic Nervous System | Parasymp-discrete,long gang(rest&digest),Symp-activates processes facilitating physical exertion,inhibits those that don't help,generalized(divergences in ganglion)(fight or flight).Dual enervation=typical pattern,effects on organs opposite,but both exist |
| General Sensory Principles (Terminology) | Sensory receptor-2 types(axon or separate cell).Stimulus-forms of energy(temp,light,pressure).TRansduction-eergy converted into electrical signal that's sent into CNS.Receptor potentials-graded potentials |
| Encoding of Sensory Inputs | Based on: 1. stimulus type-design of receptor determines its adeuate stimulus. 2. stimulus intensity-AP frequency. 3. stimulus duration-fast adapt(on/off signal,tells change),slow adapt. 4. stimulus location-acuity is the precision of localizing stimulus |
| Stimulus Location; Acuity | A. Size and B. Density of recept fields. A. littler field=more acuity B. more density=more acuity(Ex. lips vs back).overlapping recept fields-enables us to feel 1+ modality form same stimulus&enables CNS to know where stimulus was cuz in center=more dense |
| Labeled Lines | Specific axons from sensory centers into cerebral cortex,goes to same place every time,terminate in regions of brain dedicated to each area/modality.clinical examples-phantom limb |
| Association Areas | In cortex, integrate/process sensation into perception.things can affect perception-receptor adaption,emotions,personality,experience,damaged pathways(Ex. toddlers) |
| Somatic Sensations | Touch, pressure, temp, pain, body position/movement/balance |
| Pain | Naked nerve endings responding to intense deformation and chemical ligands released with tissue damage(histamine, cytokines, prostaglandins).analgesia relieves pain(ex. aspirin block synthesis of prostaglandins) |
| Referred Pain | Labeled lines convergence misinterpret pain(location feel pain=surface) |
| Pupil | Can dilate/contract=opening allows light |
| Iris | Colored part;smooth muscles inside=change pupil |
| Scelera | White part; tough and fibrous; cornea=clear covering over eyes |
| Lens | Focus light rays; behind cornea |
| Chorid | Lines back of eye; dark, absorbs light=prevents reflection from back of eye |
| Aqueuous Humor/Vitreous Humor | Aqueous=between lens and pupil, vitreous=behind |
| Fovea centralis | Highest visual acuity |
| Optic nerve | Collection of axons projecting to brain |
| Ciliary muscles | Controls shape of lens. relazed C. muscles=zonular fibers tense=flat lens=view from distance. contract C. muscles=slackened zonular fibers=ronded lens=view from near |
| Visual accomodation | To see near object, ability to bring into focus |
| Presbyopia | Lens won't snap back and round, as age lens gets stiff/less elastic=lose ability to focus up close |
| Rods (Photoreceptor cell) | Respond in dim light, located in periphery, low acuity but high sensitivity, no color vision |
| Cones (Photoreceptor cell) | Require bright light, dense around fovea, high acuity but less sensitivem color vision |
| Photo Transduction | 1. no light striking photor=cGMP is high=photor depol=inhib NTs released onto bipolar cell=bip hyperpol=no EPSP=no AP to brain. light strikes photor=cGMP levels fall=photor repol=no inhibitory NTs released=bipolar spont depol=EPSP=AP to brain |
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snakano
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