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AP Psych Unit 6
Chapter 8 Memory & Chapter 9 Cognition (Thinking & Language)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Memory | The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
| Flashbulb Memory | A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| Encoding | The processing of information into the memory system |
| Storage | The retention of encoded information over time |
| Retrieval | The process of getting information out of memory storage |
| Sensory Memory | The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system |
| Short-Term Memory | Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten |
| Long-Term Memory | The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences |
| Working Memory | A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory |
| Automatic Processing | Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. |
| Effortful Processing | Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
| Rehearsal | The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage |
| Spacing Effect | The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice |
| Next-in-line Effect | When people go around in a circle or in order, when we are next in line we focus on our own performance and fail to process the last person's words |
| Serial Position Effect | Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list |
| Visual Encoding | The encoding of picture images |
| Acoustic Encoding | The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words |
| Semantic Encoding | The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words |
| Imagery | Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding |
| Mnemonic Device | Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| Chunking | Organizing items into manageable units; often occurs automatically |
| Hierarchies | Visual representation into concepts and subcategories |
| Iconic Memory | A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
| Echoic Memory | A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
| Magical Number Seven | Most people have a working memory that can hold seven things at a time plus or minus two, so some people can hold 5 things other as many as 9 things |
| Long-term Potentiation (LTP) | An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning or memory |
| Amnesia | The loss of memory |
| Implicit Memory (Procedural Memory) | Retention independent of conscious recollection. It is made up of skills stored in the cerebellum |
| Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory) | Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare". It is made up of both facts and personally experienced events and is stored in the hippocampus |
| Hippocampus | Where explicit memory and declarative memory are stored |
| Recall | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier completely from scratch with no clues, as on the FRQs |
| Recognition | A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned with some cues all you must do is recognize the correct answer. For instance multiple choice tests |
| Relearning | A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time |
| Priming | The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Ask a friend two rapid-fire questions |
| Deja Vu | That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience |
| Mood-Congruent Memory | The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
| Forgetting | Inability to retrieve information for a variety of reasons. There are seven "sins" of forgetting |
| Absent-mindedness | Inattention to details produces encoding failure and causes forgetting |
| Transience | Storage decay over time and causes forgetting |
| Blocking | inaccessibility of stored information and causes forgetting |
| Repression | Motivated forgetting, it is one of Freud's defense mechanisms |
| Misattribution | Confusing the source of information (also known as source amnesia) and cause confusion in memory |
| Suggestibility | The lingering effects of misinformation cause confusion in memory |
| Bias | Belief-colored recollections that cause confusion in memory |
| Misinformation effect | Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event |
| Persistence | Unwanted memories that get in the way of old memories |
| Forgetting Curve | Designed by Ebbinghaus who also proved that rehearsal works on encoding proved that information remembered drops radically in the first 30 days and then tappers off |
| Proactive Interference | Type of blocking, Mnemonic PORN, proactive interference old information interferes with you trying to remember new information: can't remember new cell number because the old cell number keeps getting in the way |
| Retroactive Interference | Type of blocking, Mnemonic PORN, retroactive interference is when new information interferes with the memory recall of old information. I.E. can't remember my old locker combination because my new one keeps getting in the way |
| Source Amnesia | Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experience, heard about, read about, or imagined. Also known as misattribution. |
| Cognition | The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| Concepts | A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
| Hierarchies | Organizing our ideas into categories or subcategories |
| Definition | Strict and specific rules that always explain the term |
| Prototypes | A mental image or best example of a category. Easier way to categorize things rather than using definitions |
| Algorithm | A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier--but also more error prone- use of heuristics |
| Heuristics | A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms |
| Insight | A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions |
| Confirmation Bias | A tendency to search for information that confirms one preconceptions |
| Fixation | The inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving. |
| Mental Set | A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. |
| Functional Fixedness | The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving |
| Representativeness Heuristic | Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information |
| Availability Heuristic | Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common |
| Overconfidence | The tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments. |
| Framing | The way that an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments |
| Belief Bias | The tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid |
| Belief Perseverance | Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| Intuition | Is a process that gives us the ability to know something directly without analytic reasoning, bridging the gap between the conscious and nonconscious parts of our mind |
| Language | Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning |
| Phoneme | In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit (to talk on the phone you must use sounds) |
| Morpheme | In a language, the smallest unit of language that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (m in morpheme, m for meaning) |
| Grammar | In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with an understand others |
| Semantics | The set of rules by which we drive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning |
| Syntax | The set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. |
| Babbling Stage | Beginning at about 4 months, this stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the house-hold language |
| One-word Stage | The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words |
| Two-word Stage | Beginning at about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements |
| Telegraphic Speech | An early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram "go car" using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words. |
| Language Acquisition | The process by which we acquire language. Noam Chomsky said that we all have a specific device, we are pre-programmed to learn language |
| Noam Chomsky | Psychologist and philosopher who argued for the existence of a language acquisition device that suggests that all human beings are capable of learning language |
| Overgeneralizing | Mistake children often make of over-applying grammatical rules incorrectly |
| Surface Structure | The actual words of a sentence according to Noam Chomsky |
| Deep Structure | The meaning of a sentence according to Noam Chomsky |
| Critical Period | The idea that if you don't develop a skill by a certain point it will never develop completely. In humans many psychologists believe that Language acquisition has a critical period and that if it isn't developed by the age of seven it will never develop |
| Linguistic Determinism | Whorf's theory that suggests that language changes and determines the ways in which we think |
| Bilingual Advantage | The belief that learning a second language improves a person's cognitive functioning, including cognitive flexibility and executive functioning skills |
| Benjamin Whorf | Linguistic theorist who believes that language determines the way in which we think, calls his hypothesis the Linguistic Determinism Theory |
| Connectionism | Information processing model that views memories as products of interconnected neural networks. And particular memories arise from activation patterns within these neural networks |
| Atkinson & Shiffrin 3 Stage Memory Model | 1. We first record to-be remembered info in sensory memory 2. We process information into short-term memory where we encode it through rehearsal 3. Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval |
| The central executive | As you integrate memory inputs with existing long-term memory, your attention is focuses which we call the central executive. |
| Sperling's Sensory Memory Studies | Proved that sensory memory has a large capacity however it only lasts for very brief periods of time (short duration) |
| Testing Effect | Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading information. Also sometimes referred to as 'retrieval practice effect' or 'test-enhanced learning' |
| Shallow Processing/Structural Encoding | Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words |
| Intermediate Processing/Phoenemic Encoding | Encoding on an intermediate level based on the sound or system of sounds of words |
| Deep Processing/Semantic Encoding | Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield the best retention |
| Self-reference effect | We have especially good recall for information we can meaningfully relate to ourselves. More common in Western cultures that emphasize individualism and individual identity |
| Cerebellum | Known as the "little brain" and sits at the base of the brain attached to the brainstem. It is involved in the processing of implicit/procedural memories |
| Retrieval cues | Clues and associations that help us access the appropriate memories when we want them by placing ourselves in the original context. |
| Context-Dependent Memory | Putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory and help determine what memories you will retrieve |
| State-Dependent Memory | State-dependent memory is the idea that when we learn something in one conscious state it is often easiest to recall that memory when we are in a similar state |
| Mood Congruent Memory | The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
| Primacy Effect | Part of the serial position effect which states that we will have an easy time remembering the first items in a LIST |
| Recency Effect | Part of the serial position effect which states that we will have an easy time remembering the last items in a LIST |
| Anterograde Amnesia | An inability to form new memories |
| Retrograde Amnesia | An inability to retrieve information from one's past |
| Storage decay | Studied by Ebbinghaus in what he called the forgetting curve he proved that sometimes memories that are stored do not last forever. He explained that the course of forgetting is originally rapid and then levels off with time. |
| Retrieval failure | Inability to recall particular information at the exact moment it is requested. It is generally occasional and occurs more frequently with age |
| Elizabeth Loftus | One of the most important experts on memory. She did most of her work in proving how faulty and susceptible to distortion or memories are by proving the existence of the misinformation effect |
| Misinformation effect | Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. |
| Rehearsal | Is our way of consciously repeating or going over information in our minds so that we can move information from working memory into long-term memory |
| Wolfgang Kohler | Did the famous study where he proved that chimpanzee's had insight as well as humans. He did the experiment with "Sultan" the chimp where he put the food on the ceiling and the chimp had to move the boxes and stand on them to reach his food. |
| Aphasia | An impairment of language that can result from damage to several cortical areas particularly the left-hemisphere damage to Broca's area and Wernicke's area |
| Broca's area | Controls language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech |
| Wernicke's area | Controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. |
Created by:
thompsonce
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