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220 Stages Dev.
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Theory of Mind | knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior |
| Learning Theory Approach | Language is acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning. Emphasizes the basic principles of learning. Suggests that children learn to speak by being rewarded for making sounds that approximate speech & through shaping |
| Shaping (learning theory) | language becomes more and more similar to adult speech because children are rewarded for making sounds that approximate speech |
| Nativist Approach | a genetically determined innate mechanism directs language development Chomsky. universal language, LAD. Language is uniquely human |
| Universal Language | Nativist approach. All the world's languages share a similar underlying structure |
| Language acquisition device LAD | both permits the understandings of language structure and provides a set of strategies & techniques for learning to particular characteristics of language to which the child is exposed |
| Cephalocaudal principle (4 principles of growth) | head and upper body parts & then proceeds to the rest of the body |
| Proximodistal principle (4 principles of growth) | development proceeds form the center of the body outward |
| Principle of hierarchical integration | Simple skills typically develop separately and independently; simple skills are integrated into more complex ones |
| Principle of independence of systems | different body systems grow at different rates |
| Piaget's theory | 4 universal stages that all children pass through in a fixed order from birth to adolescnce |
| Piaget's sensorimotor stage | initial major stage of cognitive development broken into 6 substages (birth-2 years) |
| Sensorimotor substage 1: Simple reflexes | 1st month. during this period the various reflexes that determine the infant's interactions with the world are the center of its cognitive life |
| Sensorimotor substage 2: First habits & primary circular reactions | (1-4 months) Infants begin to coordinate what were separate actions into single, integrated activities |
| Sensorimotor substage 3: Secondary circular reactions | (4-8 months) Infants take major strides in shifting their cognitive horizons beyond themselves and begin to act on the outside world |
| Sensorimotor substage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reactions | (8-12 months) Infants began to use more calculated approaches to producing events, coordinating several schemas to generate a single act. Achieve object permanence |
| Sensorimotor substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions | (12-18 months) develop deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences. No longer just repeat events, infants carry out individual experiments to observe the consequences |
| Sensorimotor substage 6: Beginnings of thought | 18-24 months) major achievement is capacity for mental representation or symbolic thought. argued that this stage is the only stage where infants can imagine where objects might be that they can't see |
| Interactionist perspective | language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions & environmental circumstances that help teach language |
| Erikson's psychosocial development | theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others' and their own behavior |
| Erikson's trust-versus-mistrust stage | infants develop a sense trust or mistrust largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers. Able to develop trust, experience a sense of hope. Mistrust lead you to see the world as harsh & unfriendly |
| Erikson's autonomy-versus-shame and doubt stage | (18 months-3 years) Children develop independence and autonomy if parents encourage exploration and freedom. If children are restricted & overly protected they feel shame, self-doubt, and unhappiness |
| Piaget's pre-operational stage | Use of symbolic thinking grows mental reasoning emerges, and the use of concepts increases. Still not capable of operations |
| Operations | Not yet capable in pre-operational stage. organized formal logical mental processes |
| Centration | key element & limitation of thinking in the pre-operational stage. It's the process of concentrating on one limited aspect a stimulus- typically its superficial elements- & ignoring others |
| Conservation | pre-op have not yet mastered this. knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement & physical appearance of objects |
| Transformation | not developed in pre-operational thinking. the process in which one state is changed into another |
| Egocentric thought | thinking that does not take into account the viewpoints of others. 2 forms: lack of awareness that others see things from a different perspective & failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, & points of view that differ from theirs pre op |
| Intuitive thought | Preschoolers' use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of world knowledge . From age 4-7 curiosity blooms |
| Autobiographical memory | information processing, preschool years. memory of a particular event in one's own life. little accuracy before 3 years old, & increases gradually throughout preschool years |
| Erikson's Initiative-versus-guilt stage | (3-6 years) experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action |
| Self-concept | a person's identity, or set of beliefs about what one is like as an individual . develops during preschool years |
| Cycle of Violence Hypothesis | the abuse & neglect that children suffer predispose them as adults to abuse & neglect their own children |
| Piaget's Moral Development | Proceeds in stages |
| Piaget's Heteronomous Morality | (4-7 years old) Rules are seen as invariant and unchangeable. Children play games rigidly; there's only one way to play |
| Piaget's Incipient Cooperation Stage | (7-10 years old) games become more clearly social. Children learn the actual rules & play according to this shared knowledge. Rules are still seen as largely unchangeable, & there's a "right" way to play the game |
| Piaget's Autonomous Cooperation Stage | Begins about age 10. Children become fully aware that formal games rules can be modified if the players agree. The beginning of understanding that rules of law are created by people & are subject to change according to the will of people |
| Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage | (7-12) Characterized by active and appropriate use of logic. Applies logical operations to concrete problems. Use cognitive and logical processes to answer, no longer judging solely by appearance |
| Decentering | the ability to take multiple aspects of a situation into account. develops in concrete operational stage |
| Reversibility | notion that transformations can be reversed. Children can now grasp concept between time & speed. concrete op stage |
| Code-based approaches to reading | Teachers should focus on the basic skills that underlie reading. Emphasize the components of reading, such as letter sounds and combinations, & how letters & sounds combine to make words |
| Whole-language | Regards reading as a natural process, similar to the acquisition of oral language. Rather than sounding words out, children make guesses about the meaning of words based on the context |
| Cultural Assimilation Model | Goal was to assimilate individual cultural identities into a unique, unified American culture. Non-English speakers were discouraged from using their native language and totally immersed in English |
| Pluralistic Society Model | American society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that preserve their unique cultural features |
| Gardner's Eight Intelligences | Musical intelligence, bodily kinesthetic intelligence, logical mathematical intelligence, linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, naturalistic intelligence |
| Triarchic theory of intelligence | a Model that intelligence consists of three aspects of information consists of three aspects of information processing: the componential element, the experimental element, and the contextual element |
| Erikson's industry-versus-inferiority stage | (6-12) characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, & other complexities of the modern world. Sense of industry has a lasting effect |
| Kohlberg's theory of Moral Development | people pass through stages as their sense of justice evolves and the reasoning they use to make moral judgements changes. Three level sequence divided into six stages |
| Pre-conventional Morality | Kohlberg. lowest level (stage 1 & 2) people follow rigid rules based on punishment and rewards |
| Conventional Morality | Kohlberg. (Stages 3 & 4) people approach moral problems as good, responsible members of society. |
| Post Conventional Morality | (Stages 5 & 6) Kohlberg. Invoke universal moral principles that are considered broader than the rules of their particular society |
| Moral Domain Theory | Children distinguish between the domains of social conventional reasoning & moral reasoning. In social conventional- focus is on rules that have been established by society. moral reasoning- issues of fairness, justice . Turiel |
| Carol Gilligan Theory of Moral Development | Suggested there where differences in the way boys and girls were raised. Girls see morality in terms of responsibility toward individuals & willingness to sacrifice themselves to help others. Three stage process |
| Orientation Toward Survival of Individual | First stage of Gilligan. Initial concentration is on what is practical and best for self. Gradual transition from selfishness to responsibility which includes thinking about what would be best for others |
| Goodness as self-sacrifice | 2nd stage of Gilligan. Initial view is that a woman must sacrifice her own wishes to what other people want. Gradual transition from "goodness" to "truth" which takes into account needs from both self and others |
| Morality of Nonviolence | 3rd stage of Gilligan. A moral equivalence is established between self & others. hurting anyone-including self- is seen as immoral. Most sophisticated form of reasoning, according to Gilligan |
| Basing Friendship on Others' Behavior | Stage 1 Damon. (4-7 years) children see friends as others who like them and with whom they share toys & other activities. Children they spend the most time with |
| Basing Friendship of Trust | 2nd stage of Damon. (8-10 years) involves taking others personal qualities and traits as well as the rewards they provide into consideration. Centerpiece of friendship is mutual trust. violations in trust taken very seriously |
| Basing Friendship on Psychological Closeness | 3rd stage Damon. (11-15 years) view of friendship they will still hold in adolescence. shift towards intimacy and loyalty. Feelings of closeness, usually brought on by sharing personal thoughts and freedoms. Somewhat exclusive. |
| Piaget's Formal Operational Stage | Starting around age 12, people develop the ability to think abstractly. Consider problems in abstract rather than concrete terms. Form hypothesis. Also can use propositional thought now |
| Propositional thought | developed during formal operational stage. reasoning that uses abstract logic in the absence of concrete examples. Allows adolescents to understand that if certain premises are true, the a conclusion must be true too |
| Erikson's identity-versus-identity confusion | Where teenagers seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves. Strive to discover their strengths and weaknesses and the roles that best suit their future lives. involves "trying on different roles" Societal pressures are high |
| James Marcia Identity Development | Identity can be seen in terms of which 2 characteristics (crisis or commitment) are present Crisis-period where teen consciously chooses between various alternatives & makes decisions commitment- psychological investment in a course of action or ideology |
| Identity Achievement | Marcia. teenagers have successfully explored & thought through who they are & what they want to do. following a period of crisis, ad. have commited to a particular identity. Tend to be psychologically healthy, higher in achievement & motivation |
| Identity Foreclosure | Marcia. Have committed to an identity without passing through a period of crisis in which they explored alternatives. Instead accepted others' decisions about what was best for them. Tend to have "rigid strength" |
| Moratorium | Marcia. Have explored some alternatives but made no commitments. Have relatively high anxiety & experience psychological conflict though they are often lively and appealing, typically settle on identity but only after a struggle |
| Identity Diffusion | Marcia. Adolescents neither explore nor commit to various alternatives. They tend to shift from one thing to another. While appearing carefree their lack of commitment impairs their ability to form close relationships. Socially withdrawn |
| Lazarus & Folkman Origins of Stress Theory | People move through a series of stages that determine whether they will experience stress. Primary appraisal & Secondary appraisal |
| Primary Appraisal | First step in an individuals assessment of stress, the individual's assessment of an event to determine whether its implications are positive, negative, neutral |
| Secondary Appraisal | Secondary appraisal of stress. Person's answer to the question, "Can I handle it?" assessment of whether coping abilities & resources on hand are adequate |
| Problem-focused coping | Managing a threatening situation by directly changing it to make it less stressful |
| Emotion-focused coping | The Conscious regulation of emotion |
| Labouvie-Vief Post formal thought | Thinking that goes beyond Piaget's formal operations. Rather than being based on purely logical processes, with absolutely right and wrong answers to problems it acknowledges that adult predicaments must sometimes be solved in relativistic terms |
| Dialectical thinking | part of post formal thinking. an interest in & appreciation for argument, counterargument, & debate. Issues not always clear cut |
| Perry Developmental Growth | Developmental growth of early adulthood involves mastering new ways of understanding the world. found students entering college tend to use dualistic thinking: something was either right or wrong, throughout college this dualistic thinking declined |
| Schaie's Stages of Development | Suggests that adults' thinking follows a set of pattern of stages. Focuses on the ways that information is used during adulthood rather than changes in the acquisition and understanding of new information Before adulthood main cognitive task, acquisition |
| Acquisitive stage | Schaie. First stage of cognitive development, encompassing all of childhood & adolescence. Information is gathered for future use |
| Responsible stage | Schaie. stage where major concerns of middle-aged adults related to their personal situations, including protecting & nourishing their spouses, families, & careers |
| Executive Stage | Schaie. period in middle adulthood when people take a broader perspective than earlier, including concerns about the world |
| Achieving Stage | Schaie. Point reached by young adults in which intelligence is applied to specific situations involving the attainment of long-term goals regarding careers, family, & societal contributions |
| Erikson's intimacy-versus-isolation stage | Period of post adolescence into the early 30s that focuses on developing close, intimate relationships with others. intimacy has several aspects: selflessness, sexuality, & deep devotion. difficulties lead to feelings of isolation & loneliness |
| Emerging Adulthood | Jeffery Arnett. period form end of teenage years through the early 20s marks a unique developmental stage in which people are still sorting out their options for the future. exploring identities, figuring out their future & focusing less on the present |
| Stimulus-value-role (SVR) theory | Murstein. relationships proceed in three stages: stimulus, value, & role |
| Stimulus stage | Murstein, 1st stage. relationships are built on surface, physical characteristics such as the way a person looks. represents just the initial encounter |
| Value stage | Murstein 2nd stage. Occurs between the second and seventh encounter. Relationship characterized by increasing similarity of values & beliefs |
| Role Stage | Murstein 3rd stage. Relationship is built on specific roles played by the participants. couple may define themselves as boyfriend-girlfriend, & eventually husband and wife |
| Labeling theory of passionate love | Hatfield and Berscheid. Theory that individuals experience romantic love when two events occur together: intense physiological arousal & situational cues suggesting that the arousal is due to love |
| Sternberg's Triangular Theory | Love is made up of three components: intimacy, passion, decision/commitment. Combined to form 8 different types of love depending on which of the three components is either present of missing |
| Intimacy Component | Sternberg. encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, & connectedness |
| Passion Compnent | Sternberg. comprises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, & romance |
| Decision/commitment component | embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another person and the longer-term determination to maintain that love |
| Career Consolidation | Vailant. begins between 20 & 40, young adults become centered on their careers |
| Ginzberg's Career Choice Theory | people typically move through stages choosing a career |
| Fantasy Period | Ginzberg. Until age 11. when career choices are made & discarded without regard to skills, abilities, or available job options |
| Tentative Period | Ginzberg. Spans adolescence. People begin to think more practically about the requirements of various jobs and how their own abilities might fit with them |
| Realistic Period | Ginzberg. early adulthood. People begin to explore specific career options, either through actual experience on the job or through training for a profession, and then narrow their choices down & make a commitment |
| Holland's Personality Type Theory | Certain personality types match particularly well with certain careers. If correspondence between personality & career is good people will be happy. 6 personality types: realistic, intellectual, social, conventional, enterprising, artistic |
| Normative-crisis Models | Approach to personality development that is based on fairly universal stages tied to a sequence of age-related crises |
| Life Events Models | Helson. approach to personality development that is based on the timing of particular events in an adult's life rather than on age per se |
| Erikson's generativity versus stagnation | Stage during middle adulthood in which people consider their contributions to family & society |
| Peripheral slowing hypothesis | theory that suggests that overall processing speed declines in the peripheral nervous system, encompasses the nerves that branch from the spinal cord & brain to the extremities of the body, with increasing age. |
| Generalized slowing hypothesis | Theory that processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain is less efficient as we age. Slowing occurs throughout life |
| Genetic Programming theories of aging | Theories that suggest that our body's DNA genetic code contains a built in time limit for the reproduction of human cells. Several variants of this theory |
| Types of genetic programing aging theories | 1. Genetic material contains a "death gene" programmed to tell the body to deteriorate & die 2. Cells can only duplicate a limited number of times & eventually cells stop reproducing. 3. Telomeres, tiny protective area at the tip of the DNA get too sma |
| Wear and tear theories of aging | theory that the mechanical functions of the body simply wear out with age. Body produces too many by-products, such as free radicals, that may cause negative effects on other cells of the body |
| Explanations of memory change | environmental factors, information processing deficits, biological factors |
| Erikson's ego-integrity-versus-despair stage | Erikson's final stage. Characterized by a process of looking back over one's life, evaluating it, & coming to terms with it. Success in this stage leads to satisfaction and accomplishment & have few regrets |
| Peck | personality development of elderly people is occupied by three major developmental tasks or challenges |
| Redefinition of self versus preoccupation with work role | Peck, 1st stage. Theory that those in old age must redefine themselves in ways that do not relate to their work roles or occupations |
| Body transcendence versus body preoccupation | Peck, 2nd stage. Period in which people must learn to cope with and move beyond changes in physical capabilities as a result of aging |
| Ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation | Peck, 3rd stage. Period in which elderly people must come to grips with their coming death. Need to understand that though death is near, they have made contributions to society |
| Levinson's Final Season | adult development doesn't focus as much on challenges that aging adults must overcome, but looks at the processes that can lead to personality change as we grow Come to realize they are no longer "center stage & must adjust to these roles. venerated elder |
| Neugarten: Coping with Aging | examined the different ways that people cope with aging. 4 different personality types of people over 70 |
| Disintegrated & disorganized personality | Neugarten: unable to accept aging & experience despair as they get older. most often found in nursing homes & hospitals |
| Passive-dependent personalities | Neugarten. Fearful adults, & may seek help from family & friends even if they don't need it |
| Defended personality | Neugarten. Attempt to act young & may set unrealistic expectations & run the risk of disappointment as a result |
| Inegrated personality | Neugarten. Most successful individuals cope comfortably with aging. they accept it with a sense of self-dignity |
| Age stratification theories | Suggest that an unequal distribution of economic resources, power, & privilege exists among people at different stages of life |
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