Research

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Answer

The careful establishment of sample ___ or ___ ___ will increase the precision of the study and strength of evidence, thereby contributing to the accuracy and generalizability of the findings

inclusion, exclusion criterion

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Each __ should have a rationale, presumably related to a potential contaminating effect on the dependent variable.

inclusion et exclusion criterion

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• Remember that __ are established to control for extraneous variability or bias that would limit the strength of evidence contributed by the sampling plan in relation to the experimental design of the study.

inclusion et exclusion criteria

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• means that the researcher actively standardized the intervention, and planned how to administer intervention to each subject in the same manner under the same conditions

intervention fidelity

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• describe how et why people behave the way they do; need to know this to effectively intervene

purpose of research

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• is there a relationship? if so, is it casual? what are the constructs?

search for truth

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• are you finding what you claim to find?

design validity

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• avoid bias, via being objective

the purpose of research design

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• more logical flow throughout study

accuracy

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• there is no ____ of the control group

manipulation

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• What are the elements of research design?

participants, observations, measurement of time, selection of subjects, role of investigator

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• asks if it's the independent variable (or something else) that caused or resulted in the change in the dependent variable

internal validity

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• respondents change as a result of passage of time, vs the IV

maturation

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• effects of taking a test on the scores of a second testing

testing

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• biases in selection of sample

selection

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• loss of respondents from control groups

mortality

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• changes in calibration of measuring instrument or changes in scorers may result in problems c measurements

instrumentation

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• threats to external validity

selection effects (who), reactive effects (where-how), et measurement effects (how-when-what)

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• What is the purpose of research design?

to provide the plan for answering

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• what does antecedent mean?

before

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• How do you rule extraneous variables?

homogenous sampling, constancy in data collection, manipulation of the IV, randomnization

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• What are the experimental design features?

randomization, control group et manipulation via IV

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• To be a Level II randomized control it has to have all three components

randomization, control group et manipulation

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• the only way to truly test a this type of study design

experimental

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• provides highest level of evidence for single studies, costly, difficult logistic in field settings d/t outside of lab, et Hawthorne effect responds to being observed

Experimental design

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• may or may not have control group, nonequivalent control group design, AFTER ONLY non-equivalent group design, one group, time series design

quasi-experimental design types

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• How is experimental different than quasi-experimental?

randomization, control group, manipulation

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• randomization, control group, manipulation

experimental

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• How is quasi-experimental different than experimental?

manipulation, no control group et no randomization

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• no control group, manipulation, no randomization

quasi-experimental

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• we control this by how we design our study

priori

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• no intervention/manipulation of an IV (the IVs have already occurred), concepts of control still observed, cohorts included

non-experimental studies

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• subjects of a specific group that are being studied

cohort

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• What are advantages of survey study?

economical way to gather large amt of data from a lg population et fairly accurate

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• What are disadvantages of survey studies?

superficial information, time consuming et costly, requires expertise in instrument construction, sampling techniques, interviewing, data analysis

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• one point in time, can explore relationships et correlations, can explore comparisons or differences

cross-sectional studies

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• collect data from same group @ different points in time, relationships et differences, replace measures

longitudinal/prospective or Cohort studies

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• looking back, DV already affected by IV

retrospective studies

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• lung CA caused by smoking

retrospective study

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• have difficulty explaining the cause-et-affect relationships

non-experimental design

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• How would you enroll people into groups that assess pretest, teaching et posttest

groups A et B into pretest, No pretest for groups C et D; Teaching for groups A et C, et post test for all four groups

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• How would you assign nurses to each of the four groups in a Solomon four-group design?

randomization

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• What would you use as a pretest for the groups receiving the pretest in a Solomon four-group design?

questionnaire

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• What is the experimental tx in the case study provided?

teaching program

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• What is the outcome measure for each group in the case study provided?

post test of same questionnaire

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• Ex: the researched tested the effectiveness of a new method of teaching drug dosage et soln calcs to nursing students using a standardized cal exam at the beginning, midpoint et end of 2wks

testing

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• ex: in a study of the results of HTN teaching program conducted at a senior center, the blood pressure taken volunteers using their personal equipment were compared before et after

instrumentaton, use of same equipment

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• ex. a major increase in cigarette taxes occurs during a one-year follow-up study of the impact of a smoking cessation program

history, outside of study (can't control increase of tax)

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• ex. smoking cessation rates of an experimental group consisting of volunteers for a smoking cess program were compared c the rsults of a control group of ppl who wanted to quit s program

selection bias

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• ex 30% of subjects dropped out of an experimental study

mortality

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• ex. nurses of a maternity unit want to study the effect of a new hospital-based teaching program on mothers' confidence in caring for the NB infants; researchers mail out a survey one month after discharge

maturation

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• General purpose; selection of design;

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• This gives the reader a clear context for understanding the focus and direction of the research

philosophical underpinnings

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• Variable that interferes with the operations of the phenomena being studied. Also called mediating variable

extraneous variables

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• involves holding the data procedures or conditions of the study constant and establishing specific sampling criteria

control et intervention fidelity

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• A researcher attempts to use a design to maximize the degree of ____ or uniformity over the tested variables

control

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• one that interferes with the operations of the variables being studied

intervening, extraneous or mediating variable

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• •Use of a homogeneous sample, Use of consistent data-collection procedures, Training and supervision of data collectors and interventionists, Manipulation of the independent variable, Randomization

means of controlling extraneous variables

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• The degree to which it can be inferred that the experimental treatment, rather than an uncontrolled condition, resulted in the observed effects

internal validity

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• Factor that can compromise outcomes. If these threats are not considered, they could negate the results of the research

internal et external validity threats

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• History, Maturation, Testing, Instrumentation, Mortality, Selection bias

threats to internal validity

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• another specific event that may have an effect on the dependent variable may occur either inside or outside the experimental setting

history

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• a study of the effects of a breast-feeding teaching program on the length of time of breast-feeding, an event such as government-sponsored advertisements on the importance of breast-feeding featured on television and in newspapers

threat of validity via history example

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• refers to the developmental, biological, or psychological processes that operate within an individual as a function of time and are external to the events of the investigation

maturation

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• Between the pretest and posttest, the students have grown older and wiser

threat of validity via maturation example

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• are changes in the measurement of the variables or observational techniques that may account for changes in the obtained measurement

instrumentation

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• a researcher may wish to study various types of thermometers (e.g., tympanic, digital, electronic, chemical indicator, plastic strip, and mercury) to compare the accuracy of using the mercury thermometer to other temperature-taking methods

threats to validity via instrumentation (example)

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• the loss of study subjects from the first data-collection point (pretest) to the second data-collection point (posttest)

mortality

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• The internal validity threat that arises when pretreatment differences between the experimental group and the control group are present

selection bias

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• questions under what conditions and with what types of subjects the same results can be expected to occur

external validity

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• related to selection of subjects, study conditions, and type of observations. These factors are termed effects of selection, reactive effects, and effects of testing

factors that affect external validity

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• defined as the subjects’ responses to being studied. Subjects may respond to the investigator not because of the study procedures but merely as an independent response to being studied

reactivity

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• Administration of a pretest in a study affects the generalizability of the findings to other populations

measurement of effects

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• The ________ of the design is to provide the master plan for a research study

purpose

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• The ____ should be proposed with a plan for the accomplishment of the investigation

question

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• The choice of the ____ _____ depends on the nature of the question.

specific design

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• Selection effects, Reactive effects, Measurement effects

threats to external validity

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• Random assignment controls for ___

selecting bias

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• another name for study weaknesses is ____

limitations

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• The threat to internal validity that is most difficult to control is ____

mortality

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• the degree to which the study results can be applied to the larger population refers to

external validity

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• Which type of design controls for the reactive effects of the present?

Solomon four-group

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• What threat to internal validity is controlled when a researcher completes an experiment in a relatively short period to minimize developmental changes?

maturation

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• what threat to internal is controlled when a researcher uses reliable et valid assessment tools or scales for rating or scoring to avoid biases?

instrumentation

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• A true experiment requires all of the following except

double-blind procedures

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• Which of the following must be present in quasi-experimental research?

manipulation of a variable

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• In phenomenological research, researchers must acknowledge any previous information, ideas, or beliefs about a particular phenomenon before proceeding with the study

bracketing

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• data is collected in a phenomenological study through a variety of techniques, which include?

observation, descriptions written by subjects, et unstructured interviews

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• the researcher provides information regarding decision-making during the steps of data analysis to interpretation of findings; this meets the criteria of ___

auditability

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• which group of social scientists has the greatest interest et commitment to discovery of cultural knowledge?

anthropologists

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• observations recorded about the people, places et things that are part of the ethnographer's study of a culture are referred to as ___

field notes

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• The phrase "researcher as an instrument" is a fundamental characteristic of ethnography

the researcher's becoming immersed in the direct observation et learning from members of cultural groups

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• Data gathered in grounded theory research using field techniques, observational methods, et documents are examined et analyzed through a system referred to as

constant comparative method

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• the qualitative design is used to study social processes et social structures et to develop theory

grounded theory

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• voice of the perspective of members of a group

emic

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• the qualitative design used to study the lived experiences of humans

phenomenology

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• data collection primarily interviews et documents; analysis of stories, epiphanies, historical content, focus is exploring the life of an individual

biography

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• data collection of long interviews c up to 10 people, analysis of statements, meanings, meaning themes, general description, focus to understand the essence of experience

phenomenology

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• description of the "essence"of the experience

phenomenology

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• detailed picture of an individual's life

biography

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• data collection interviews c 20-30 individuals to "saturate" categories et detail a theory, analysis of open coding, axial coding, selective coding, conditional matrix, focus of developing a theory grounded in data from the field

grounded theory

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• theory or theoretical model

grounded theory

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• data collection primarily observations et interviews c additional artifacts during extended time in the field (6 mos to 1 yr), analysis, description, interpretation, focus describing et interpreting a cultural et social group

ethnography

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• description of the cultural behavior of a group or an individual

ethnography

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• data collection from multiple resources-documents, archival records, interviews, observations, physical artifacts, analysis of description, themes, assertions, focus is developing an in-depth analysis of a single/multiple cases

case study

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• in depth study of a "case" or "cases"

case study

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• a process that selects representative units of a population for study

sampling

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• Researchers ___ representative segments of the population because it is rarely feasible or necessary to sample entire populations of interest to obtain accurate and meaningful information

sample

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• Researchers establish __ ___; these are descriptors of the population and provide the basis for selection of a sample.

eligibility criteria

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• which are also referred to as delimitations, include the following: age, gender, socioeconomic status, level of education, religion, and ethnicity.

eligibility criteria

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•The researcher must identify the __ __i.e., the entire set of cases about which the researcher would like to make generalizations).

target population

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• Because of the pragmatic constraints, however, the researcher usually uses an ___ population (i.e., one that meets the population criteria and is available).

accessible

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•is a set of elements that makes up the population

a sample

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•is the element or set of elements used for selecting the sample

a sampling unit

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• The foremost criterion in appraising a sample is the representativeness or congruence of characteristics with the population

sampling unit

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•consist of nonprobability and probability sampling

sampling strategies

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•In ____ sampling, the elements are chosen by nonrandom methods

nonprobability

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• Types of ___ sampling include convenience, quota, and purposive sampling

nonprobability

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one that meets the target population criteria and that is available, is used instead

accessible population

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• well-defined set that has certain specified properties. A population can be composed of people, animals, objects, or events

population

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• Examples of ___ ___ might be all of the female patients admitted to a certain hospital for lumpectomies for treatment of breast cancer during the year 2010

clinical populations

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• For example, an ___ ___ might include all full-time generic baccalaureate students attending school in Indiana

accessible population

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• The population criteria establish the ___ ___,that is, the entire set of cases about which the researcher would like to make generalizations

target population

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• example of this might include all undergraduate nursing students enrolled in generic baccalaureate programs in the United States

target population

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• established to decrease heterogeneity of sample group bc heterogeneity would decrease the strength of evidence et inhibit ability to interpret findings meaningfully et make generalizations

Purpose of exclusion criteria

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• uses some form of random selection when the sample units are chosen

probability sampling

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• elements are chosen by nonrandom methods

nonprobability sampling

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• is one whose key characteristics closely approximate those of the population

representative sample

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• if 70% of the population in a study of child-rearing practices consisted of women and 40% were full-time employees, a __ __should reflect these characteristics in the same proportions

representative sample

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• A probability sampling strategy in which the population is divided into strata or subgroups

stratified random sampling

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• An appropriate number of elements from each subgroup are randomly selected based on their proportion in the population

Stratified random sampling

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• A nonprobability sampling strategy that identifies the strata of the population and proportionately represents the strata in the sample

quota sampling

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• A probability sampling strategy that involves the selection of subjects randomly drawn from a population list at fixed intervals

systematic sampling

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• A selection process in which each element of the population has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample.

random selection

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• is an increasingly common strategy in which the researcher's knowledge of the population and its elements is used to handpick the cases to be included in the sample

purposive sampling

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• A nonprobability sampling strategy that uses the most readily accessible persons or objects as subjects in a study

convenience sampling

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• is the use of the most readily accessible persons or objects as subjects in a study

convenience sampling

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• ex. The subjects may include volunteers, the first 100 patients admitted to hospital X with a particular diagnosis

convenience sampling

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• The women were recruited from community groups and by word of mouth referral by interview participants

network sampling (snowballing)

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• is a strategy used for locating samples that are difficult or impossible to locate in other ways

networking sampling

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• The ___ the sample, the more representative of the population it is likely to be; ____ samples produce less accurate results

larger, smaller

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• an advanced statistical technique that is commonly used by researchers and is a requirement for external funding

power analysis

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• It is possible to estimate the sample size needed with the use of a statistical procedure

power analysis

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• All research is based on

philosophical beliefs, a worldview, or a paradigm.

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•Qualitative research

encompasses different methodologies.

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•Qualitative researchers believe that reality is

socially constructed and is context dependent.

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•Values should be kept as ____ as possible from the conduct of research.

separate

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•Qualitative research like quantitative research follows a process but the components of the process vary.

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•Qualitative research contributes to __ __ __

evidence-based practice.

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• The expansion of research methods in a single study or multiple studies to enhance diversity, enrich understanding, and accomplish specific goals.

triangulation

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• A process during which the researcher identifies personal biases about the phenomenon of interest to clarify how personal experience and beliefs may color what is heard and reported

bracketed

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• The researcher is expected to set aside personal biases—to ____ them—when engaged with the participants

bracket

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*Characteristics of a well-written study

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• Truth of findings as judged by participants and others within the discipline

credibility

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• you may find the researcher returning to the participants to share interpretation of findings and query accuracy from the perspective of the persons living the experience

credibility

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• Accountability as judged by the adequacy of information leading the reader from the research question and raw data through various steps of analysis to the interpretation of findings

auditability

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• For instance, you should be able to follow the reasoning of the researcher step-by-step through explicit examples of data, interpretations, and syntheses.

auditability

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• Faithfulness to everyday reality of the participants, described in enough detail so that others in the discipline can evaluate importance for their own practice, research, and theory development.

fittingness

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• For instance, you will know enough about the human experience being reported that you can decide whether it “rings true” and is useful for guiding your practice

fittingness

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• The native's or insider's view of the world

emic view

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• An outsider's view of another's world

etic view

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*sampling techniques

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• A point when data collection can cease

data saturation

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• It occurs when the information being shared with the researcher becomes repetitive

data saturation

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• Ideas conveyed by the participant have been shared before by other participants; inclusion of additional participants does not result in new ideas

data saturation

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• qualitative study is usually done in a naturalistic setting; we usually do not bring the participants into a clinic interview room to collect data

data collection

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• contain details such as obtaining informed consent, and should describe in clear detail the steps from when a participant contacted the researcher to the end of the study visit

data collection

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• the researcher tells you how he or she handled the raw data, which are usually transcripts of the recorded interviews in a qualitative study

data analysis

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*themes

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*purpose

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• The group in an experimental investigation that does not receive an intervention or treatment; the comparison group

Control group

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• The group in an experimental investigation that receives an intervention or treatment

experimental group

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• True experimental designs, which provide Level II evidence, offer the most possibility for control, and nonexperimental designs offer the least

controlling antecedent variables

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• Quasi-experimental designs, which provide Level III evidence, fall somewhere in between

controlling antecedent variables

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•Two types of design commonly used in nursing research to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships are

experimental and quasi-experimental designs

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• provide the strongest evidence (Level II) for a single study in terms of whether an intervention or treatment affects patient outcomes

Experimental designs or randomized clinical trials

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• are characterized by the ability of the researcher to control extraneous variation, to manipulate the independent variable, and to randomly assign subjects to research groups

true experiments

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• Researchers frequently turn to ___ __ __ to test cause-and-effect relationships because experimental designs often are impractical or unethical

quasi-experimental design

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• may lack either the randomization or the comparison group characteristics of true experiments, or both of these factors

quasi experiments

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• The overall purpose of critiquing such studies is to assess the __ of the ___ and to determine whether these findings are worth incorporating into the nurse's personal practice

validity of the findings

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• are used in studies that construct a picture or make an account of events as they naturally occur

nonexperimental research studies

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• The major difference between nonexperimental and experimental research is that in nonexperimental designs the independent variable is not actively ___ by the investigator

manipulated

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• can be classified as either survey studies or relationship/difference studies.

nonexperimental designs

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• are both descriptive and exploratory in nature

survey or relationship studies

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• collects detailed descriptions of existing phenomena and uses the data either to justify current conditions and practices or to make more intelligent plans for improving them

survey reserach

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• endeavor to explore the relationships between variables that provide deeper insight into the phenomena of interest

relationship studies

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• examine relationships

correlational studies

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• are further broken down into categories of cross-sectional studies, longitudinal/prospective/cohort studies, retrospective/expost facto studies, and case control

developmental studies

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• are a key method for building evidence-based practice

systematic reviews

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• do not enable the investigator to establish cause-and-effect relationships between the variables.

nonexperimental research designs

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• offer the researcher the least amount of control

nonexperimental

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• represent a major influence on the interpretation of a nonexperimental study because they impose limitations on the generalizability of the results

threats of validity

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• an experimental design c four randomly assigned groups

Solomon four-group design

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• An experimental design with four randomly assigned groups—the pretest-posttest intervention group, the pretest-posttest control group, a treatment or intervention group with only posttest measurement, and a control group with only posttest measurement

Solomon four-group design

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