BIOLOGY REGENTS 2025
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| DNA | the blueprint of life. It carries the genetic instructions that determine the structure and function of all living things
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| Proteins | essential molecules in our bodies that perform a wide range of functions necessary for life
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| Structure of DNA | composed of two strands that form a double helix. The strands are made up of nucleotides, which include a sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine)
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| Transcription | First step. The DNA double helix unwinds, and an enzyme called RNA polymerase reads one DNA strand and creates a complementary strand of mRNA
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| Translation | The mRNA leaves the nucleus and is read by a ribosome. tRNA brings the correct amino acids to match each codon, and a protein is built
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| Base Pairing Rule | Adenine pairs with Thymine, Cytosine pairs with Guanine
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| Nitrogenous Bases | Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)
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| RNA Base Difference | RNA uses Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T)
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| Codon | A sequence of three mRNA bases that codes for one amino acid
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| mRNA | Messenger RNA, made from DNA during transcription; carries the genetic message to the ribosome
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| tRNA | Transfer RNA, brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation
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| Ribosome | The cell's protein-making factory, where translation occurs
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| Protein Synthesis | The overall process of transcription and translation, by which proteins are made from genetic instructions
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| Amino Acids | Building blocks of proteins, linked together in the order specified by mRNA
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| Enzymes | Proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions
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| Structural Proteins | Proteins that provide support and shape to cells and tissues (e.g., collagen)
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| Cell Receptors | Proteins on the cell surface that receive chemical signals and help the cell respond to its environment
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| Gene | A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein
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| Nucleotide | Basic unit of DNA made of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base
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| RNA Polymerase | The enzyme that builds mRNA during transcription
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| Why Protein Shape Matters | The shape of a protein determines its function; shape depends on the amino acid sequence
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| How DNA Determines Traits | DNA controls the sequence of amino acids in proteins, which influence structure and function in cells and traits in organisms
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| Where Transcription Occurs | In the nucleus
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| Where Translation Occurs | In the cytoplasm at a ribosome
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| Genetic Code | The sequence of DNA bases that determines the amino acid sequence in proteins
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| DNA to Trait Pathway | DNA → mRNA (transcription) → amino acid chain (translation) → folded protein → trait
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| Effect of DNA Mutation | A change in DNA may change the protein made, possibly altering structure or function
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| Hierarchical Organization | The levels of structure in multicellular organisms: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems
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| Cells | The basic unit of life. Different types perform specific functions like movement or communication
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| Tissues | Groups of similar cells working together to perform a particular function, like muscle or epithelial tissue
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| Organs | Structures made of multiple tissues working together to perform specific functions (e.g., the heart)
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| Organ Systems | Groups of organs that work together to carry out complex body functions (e.g., circulatory system)
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| Digestive System Function | Breaks down food into nutrients for the body to absorb and use
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| Circulatory System Function | Transports nutrients, oxygen, water, and other substances to cells and tissues
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| Immune System Function | Detects and responds to pathogens to protect the body from disease
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| Nervous System Function | Allows the body to sense and respond to environmental changes (stimuli)
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| Muscle Cells | Specialized cells that contract to allow movement
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| Nerve Cells | Specialized cells that send electrical signals through the body
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| Epithelial Tissue | Tissue that covers body surfaces and lines organs and cavities
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| Muscle Tissue | Tissue that enables movement by contracting and relaxing
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| Heart | An organ composed of multiple tissues that work together to pump blood
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| Multicellular Organism | An organism made up of many specialized cells and systems working together
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| Homeostasis | The maintenance of a stable internal environment within an organism despite external changes
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| Feedback Mechanisms | Processes that respond to internal or external changes to help maintain homeostasis
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| Negative Feedback | A mechanism that counteracts changes to bring the system back to normal (e.g., sweating to cool down)
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| Positive Feedback | A mechanism that amplifies changes (e.g., hormone release during childbirth to increase contractions)
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| Temperature Regulation | Example of negative feedback: body cools itself through sweating when temperature rises
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| Heart Rate and Exercise | Heart rate increases during exercise to supply more oxygen, helping maintain stable oxygen levels
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| Stomate Response | Plant stomates open or close based on moisture and temperature to balance water and gas exchange
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| Root Growth and Water | Plant roots grow toward areas with more water to maintain hydration and support survival
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| Internal Conditions Maintained | Includes temperature, pH, oxygen levels, and nutrient concentrations
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| Investigation of Feedback | Can include measuring changes in heart rate, stomate opening, or root growth in different conditions
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| Photosynthesis | The process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen
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| Purpose of Photosynthesis | Transforms light energy into stored chemical energy in the form of glucose
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| Where Photosynthesis Occurs | In the chloroplasts of plant cells
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| Inputs of Photosynthesis | Light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O)
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| Outputs of Photosynthesis | Glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2)
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| Energy Transformation in Photosynthesis | Light energy is captured by chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy stored in glucose
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| Chlorophyll | The green pigment in chloroplasts that captures light energy
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| Photosynthesis Chemical Equation | 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
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| Use of Glucose | Used by plants for growth, reproduction, and cellular energy
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| Byproduct of Photosynthesis | Oxygen (O2), released into the atmosphere
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| Carbon-Based Molecules | Molecules essential for life that are built around carbon; include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
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| Elements in Sugar Molecules | Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
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| Building Blocks of Life | Simple molecules like sugars combine with nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus to form complex molecules
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| Amino Acids | Formed by combining carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur; building blocks of proteins
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| Proteins | Large, complex molecules made of amino acids that perform many functions in organisms
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| Lipids | Fats and oils formed from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; used for energy storage and cell structure
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| Nucleic Acids | DNA and RNA, formed from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
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| Formation of Complex Molecules | Chemical reactions rearrange elements from simple molecules to build lipids, proteins, starches, and nucleic acids
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| Importance of Chemical Reactions | Allow the transformation of basic elements into the molecules necessary for life
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| Use of Models and Simulations | Helps scientists understand and explain how complex molecules form from simpler ones
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| Aerobic Cellular Respiration | A process where cells break down glucose using oxygen to release energy
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| Inputs of Aerobic Respiration | Glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2)
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| Outputs of Aerobic Respiration | Carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and ATP (energy)
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| Purpose of Aerobic Respiration | To release energy from food and store it in ATP for cellular use
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| ATP | Adenosine triphosphate; the energy-carrying molecule used by cells
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| Energy Transfer in Respiration | Bonds in glucose and oxygen are broken; new bonds form in CO2 and H2O, releasing energy
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| Chemical Bonds in Respiration | Breaking food molecule bonds and forming new bonds results in energy release
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| Use of Oxygen | Oxygen is required to efficiently break down glucose and extract energy
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| Role of Models in Respiration | Help visualize chemical reactions, energy flow, and bond changes during respiration
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| Location of Respiration | Occurs primarily in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells
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| Cycling of Matter | The continuous movement of elements like carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen between biotic and abiotic parts of an ecosystem
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| Flow of Energy | Energy enters ecosystems through sunlight, moves through organisms via food chains, and exits as heat
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| Photosynthesis in Ecosystems | Captures sunlight to convert CO2 and water into glucose and oxygen, introducing energy into the food chain
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| Aerobic Respiration in Ecosystems | Breaks down glucose with oxygen to release energy, returning CO2 and water to the environment
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| Anaerobic Respiration | Energy-releasing process without oxygen; less efficient and produces byproducts like lactic acid or ethanol
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| Matter vs. Energy in Ecosystems | Matter is recycled; energy flows in one direction and is not recycled
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| Carbon Cycle | Carbon moves through plants, animals, the atmosphere, and soil in forms like CO2 and organic compounds
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| Role of Decomposers | Break down dead organisms, returning nutrients like nitrogen and carbon to the soil and atmosphere
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| Food Chain Energy Flow | Energy is passed from producers to consumers to decomposers, with energy lost as heat at each level
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| Sunlight’s Role in Ecosystems | Primary energy source that powers photosynthesis and drives the entire ecosystem’s energy flow
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| Cycling of Matter | Matter is recycled in ecosystems as elements like carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen move through living and nonliving components
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| Flow of Energy | Energy flows one way through ecosystems, entering as sunlight and leaving as heat; it is not recycled
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| Energy Pyramids | Graphical models that show how energy decreases at each trophic level from producers to top consumers
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| Primary Producers | Organisms like plants that capture sunlight and form the base of the energy pyramid
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| Trophic Levels | Levels in a food chain or energy pyramid, including producers, primary consumers, and higher-level consumers
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| Energy Transfer Efficiency | Only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next; the rest is lost as heat
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| Conservation of Matter | Matter is not created or destroyed in ecosystems; it cycles through various forms and organisms
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| Conservation of Energy | Energy is conserved but transformed; it changes form (e.g., chemical to heat) as it flows through the ecosystem
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| Carbon in Ecosystems | Carbon cycles through photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and consumption of organisms
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| Mathematical Models in Ecology | Used to represent and analyze how matter and energy move through ecosystems, such as in energy pyramids
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| The Carbon Cycle | The continuous movement of carbon among the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere
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| Carbon in the Biosphere | Carbon is stored in living organisms and released through processes like respiration and decomposition
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| Carbon in the Atmosphere | Carbon exists as carbon dioxide (CO2), which is absorbed and released through various processes
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| Carbon in the Hydrosphere | Carbon dissolves in bodies of water and is exchanged with the atmosphere and aquatic life
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| Carbon in the Geosphere | Carbon is stored in rocks and fossil fuels and released through geological processes and combustion
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| Photosynthesis and Carbon | Plants take in CO2 and convert it into glucose, removing carbon from the atmosphere
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| Respiration and Carbon | Organisms release CO2 back into the atmosphere by breaking down glucose for energy
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| Decomposition and Carbon | Decomposers break down dead organisms, releasing carbon into the atmosphere or soil
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| Combustion and Carbon | Burning of fossil fuels or organic matter releases carbon back into the atmosphere as CO2
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| Human Impact on Carbon Cycle | Activities like burning fossil fuels increase atmospheric CO2 and affect climate balance
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| Carbon Storage | Carbon can be stored for long periods in the geosphere (fossil fuels, rocks) or short-term in living organisms
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| Carbon Cycle Models | Visual tools that show how carbon moves through Earth’s systems and the processes involved
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| Carrying Capacity | The maximum number of individuals of a species that an ecosystem can support sustainably over time
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| Biotic Factors | Living components of an ecosystem that affect carrying capacity, such as predators, prey, competitors, and symbiotic relationships
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| Abiotic Factors | Non-living components like climate, water availability, soil quality, and temperature that influence carrying capacity
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| Example of Biotic Factor Impact | Increase in predator populations can decrease carrying capacity for prey species
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| Example of Abiotic Factor Impact | Drought reduces water availability, lowering carrying capacity for species dependent on water
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| Interdependence of Factors | Changes in abiotic factors (e.g., climate) can affect biotic factors (e.g., food availability) and impact carrying capacity
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| Mathematical Models | Graphs, charts, and histograms used to analyze how biotic and abiotic factors influence population changes over time
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| Computational Models | Simulations and computer models that predict ecosystem responses to different environmental conditions
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| Purpose of Models | To help scientists explain and predict changes in carrying capacity under varying conditions
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| Carrying Capacity Variation | Carrying capacity can change at different scales, depending on local or broader ecosystem conditions
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| Biodiversity | The variety of life in an ecosystem, including species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity
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| Factors Affecting Biodiversity | Habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, invasive species, and overexploitation
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| Population Dynamics | Changes in population size and composition influenced by birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration
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| Mathematical Representations | Graphs, charts, and data analysis tools used to support and revise explanations about biodiversity and populations
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| Analyzing Trends | Using data trends (like population size over time) to assess ecosystem health and impacts on biodiversity
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| Graphical Comparisons | Visualizing relationships between variables (e.g., pollution levels vs. species diversity) to understand ecosystem changes
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| Importance of Biodiversity | High biodiversity generally indicates a healthy and resilient ecosystem
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| Using Data to Predict | Mathematical models help predict future changes in populations and biodiversity based on observed data
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| Impacts of Pollution on Biodiversity | Pollution often causes a decline in species diversity and disrupts population dynamics
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| Invasive Species Impact | Non-native species can outcompete natives and reduce biodiversity
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| Ecosystem Stability | The ability of an ecosystem to maintain relatively constant numbers and types of organisms despite minor disturbances
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| Complex Interactions | Interactions like predator-prey relationships, competition, and symbiosis that help maintain stable populations and biodiversity
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| Resilience | The capacity of an ecosystem to recover from small disturbances and return to its original state
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| Changes in Ecosystem Conditions | Alterations caused by natural events (e.g., floods, volcanic eruptions) or human activities (e.g., hunting, pollution)
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| Impact of Changes | Some changes allow ecosystems to adapt; others can cause ecosystems to transform into new ecosystems
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| Ecological Succession | The natural process of ecosystem change over time, including primary succession (starting from bare rock) and secondary succession (alteration of an existing ecosystem)
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| Evaluating Claims and Evidence | Assessing the validity, strength, and logic of scientific data and conclusions about ecosystem stability and change
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| New Ecosystem Formation | When changes are severe, the original ecosystem may be replaced by a different one with new species and interactions
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| Human Activities Impacting Environment | Urbanization, agriculture, industrialization, and transportation that cause habitat destruction, pollution, and invasive species spread
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| Urbanization Effects | Leads to habitat loss, ecosystem fragmentation, pollution, and decreased species diversity
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| Invasive Species | Non-native organisms that outcompete native species, reducing biodiversity; spread facilitated by human trade and travel
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| Solutions to Environmental Challenges | Technological innovations, legislation, policies, and conservation practices to reduce human impact
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| Designing Solutions | Involves understanding problems, brainstorming, and creating models or simulations to predict outcomes and sustainability
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| Evaluating Solutions | Monitoring environmental indicators and biodiversity to assess effectiveness of solutions
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| Refining Solutions | Adjusting or improving solutions based on evaluation results and changing environmental conditions
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| Group behavior vs. individual behavior | Group behavior involves coordinated actions by multiple individuals for common goals like safety or resource use; individual behavior is carried out alone to meet personal needs
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| Advantages of group behavior | Group behaviors increase survival and reproduction by providing protection from predators, efficient resource use, and improved reproduction
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| Protection from predators | Group behaviors such as schooling or flocking confuse predators and reduce the chance of any one individual being caught
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| Efficient resource use | Cooperative hunting or foraging in groups helps capture prey or gather food more effectively than individuals alone
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| Improved reproduction | Migrating or breeding in groups improves chances of finding better breeding grounds and higher offspring survival rates
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| Evidence: flocking | Birds flying in flocks benefit from reduced predation risk and increased foraging efficiency
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| Evidence: schooling | Fish schooling reduces predation by confusing predators through coordinated movement
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| Evidence: herding | Herd animals like elephants use group formation to protect vulnerable members from predators
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| Evidence: cooperative hunting | Predators like lions hunt in groups to take down larger prey more successfully
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| Evidence: migrating | Group migration helps species navigate collectively and share environmental cues, aiding survival and reproduction
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| Developing arguments based on evidence | Distinguish group vs. individual behavior, identify supporting data, and construct logical claims on group behavior benefits
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| Mitosis | Mitosis is the process where a single cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells, essential for growth, repair, and replacement of cells
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| Main stages of mitosis | Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase are the main stages of mitosis (details not covered here)
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| Cell differentiation | After mitosis, cells become specialized into different types like muscle, nerve, or blood cells, guided by gene expression and environmental signals
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| Abnormal cell division | Uncontrolled cell division can cause cancer, where tumors form and may invade other tissues
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| Stem cells | Undifferentiated cells that can develop into various cell types, important for growth, repair, and regeneration
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| Stem cell research | Studies stem cells’ ability to treat diseases and repair damaged tissues by directing differentiation
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| Modeling mitosis and differentiation | Models like diagrams and simulations illustrate how cells divide and specialize, aiding understanding of these processes
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| DNA | DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the hereditary material in all living organisms that contains genetic instructions for growth, development, and reproduction
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| Chromosomes | Chromosomes are long structures made of DNA and proteins; humans have 23 pairs, with one set from each parent containing many genes
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| Coding regions | Coding regions are DNA sequences that contain instructions for making proteins responsible for trait expression
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| Non-coding regions | Non-coding regions do not code for proteins but regulate gene expression, provide chromosome structure, and maintain genome stability
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| Inheritance of traits | Traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes on chromosomes; combinations of alleles determine traits
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| How do coding regions contribute to traits? | Coding regions direct the synthesis of proteins that result in the expression of specific traits
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| What is the role of non-coding regions? | They regulate gene expression, support chromosome structure, and maintain genome stability
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| How are traits passed through chromosomes? | Genes on chromosomes are inherited from parents, carrying the genetic information for traits
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| Why distinguish coding from non-coding regions? | Because coding regions make proteins while non-coding regions control gene activity and chromosome function
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| New genetic combinations through meiosis | Meiosis produces gametes with new gene combinations through crossing over and independent assortment, creating genetic diversity
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| Errors during DNA replication | Mistakes during DNA copying can cause mutations passed to offspring if they occur in gametes, adding genetic variation
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| Mutations caused by environmental factors | Radiation, chemicals, and viruses can cause DNA mutations that may be inherited if they occur in germ cells
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| Genetic engineering | Biotechnological methods modify DNA by adding, removing, or altering genes, creating inheritable genetic variations not found naturally
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| How do new genetic combinations arise in meiosis? | Through crossing over and independent assortment, genes are shuffled to create unique offspring genetic profiles
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| What role do replication errors play in genetic variation? | Replication errors can cause mutations that introduce new inheritable genetic variations
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| How can environmental factors cause genetic variation? | They induce mutations in DNA, which may be passed to offspring if occurring in germ cells
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| What is genetic engineering’s impact on genetic variation? | It artificially introduces new genetic traits that can be inherited by future generations
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| How is evidence used to defend claims about genetic variation? | Experimental data, genetic studies, and observed traits support explanations of how variation occurs
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| Statistical analysis of traits | Uses averages, variances, and standard deviations to summarize how traits are distributed and identify patterns in a population
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| Probability of trait expression | Predicts likelihood of traits appearing in offspring using genetic inheritance patterns like Punnett squares
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| Genetic factors in trait variation | Alleles inherited from parents determine traits; probability describes how allele combinations cause variation
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| Environmental factors and traits | Environmental conditions influence trait expression and interact with genetic factors affecting distribution
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| Describing trait distribution | Mathematical models and visual tools like histograms and bar graphs show frequency and range of traits in a population
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| How does statistics help understand traits in a population? | It summarizes data on trait distribution and reveals patterns using measures like averages and variance
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| What role does probability play in genetics? | It predicts the chance of dominant or recessive traits appearing in offspring based on inheritance
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| How do genetic factors contribute to trait variation? | Different combinations of inherited alleles create genetic diversity in traits
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| How do environmental factors affect trait expression? | They modify how genetic traits are expressed and impact their distribution in a population
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| What tools describe trait distribution visually? | Histograms and bar graphs represent the frequency and range of traits observed in populations
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| Structures of male reproductive system | Includes testes that produce sperm and penis that delivers sperm into female reproductive tract
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| Structures of female reproductive system | Includes ovaries that produce eggs and uterus where the embryo develops
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| Role of endocrine system in reproduction | Regulates reproductive hormones that influence sexual development and function
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| Role of circulatory system in reproduction | Supplies blood to reproductive organs, supporting their function
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| Role of nervous system in reproduction | Involved in sexual arousal and reproductive behaviors
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| What happens after fertilization? | The fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes stages to become an embryo and then a fetus
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| Key stages of embryonic development | Include implantation in the uterus and early development of organs and body systems
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| How do environmental factors affect development? | Nutrition, toxins, and health impact fetal growth and development
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| Why is maternal nutrition important? | It supports healthy fetal growth and reduces risk of developmental problems
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| How can exposure to toxins influence development? | It can cause developmental issues or birth defects
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| What is the overall purpose of human reproduction and development? | To ensure the continuity of life by creating and developing new individuals
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| DNA sequence similarities | Similarity in DNA sequences among species indicates common ancestry; closely related species have more similar DNA
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| Comparative anatomy | Homologous structures in different species show shared ancestry despite different functions
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| Example of homologous structures | Forelimbs of humans, whales, and birds have similar bone structures due to common descent
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| Embryological development | Many species exhibit similar early developmental stages, supporting common ancestry
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| Fossil record | Fossils show historical changes in species and transitional forms illustrating evolution
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| What does the fossil record support? | Gradual evolutionary change and emergence of new species over time
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| Biogeography | Geographic distribution of species supports evolution through continental drift and landmass movement
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| How does biogeography support evolution? | Similar species found in different regions reflect historical movement of continents and species evolution
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| Potential for Population Growth | Species can reproduce and increase in number, but not all offspring survive due to environmental limits
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| Why is population growth important for evolution? | It creates opportunities for natural selection to act on variation within the population
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| Heritable Genetic Variation | Mutations and sexual reproduction produce genetic differences that can be inherited
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| How do mutations and sexual reproduction contribute to variation? | Mutations introduce new traits; sexual reproduction shuffles genes creating diverse trait combinations
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| Competition for Limited Resources | Organisms compete for food, water, and shelter, influencing survival and reproduction success
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| What effect does competition have on evolution? | It favors individuals with traits better suited to obtain limited resources
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| Natural Selection and Adaptation | Better-adapted organisms are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on advantageous traits
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| How does natural selection drive evolution? | Traits that improve survival/reproduction become more common over generations, causing evolutionary change
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| What is natural selection? | Natural selection is the process where individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, causing those traits to become more common in the population over time.
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| What is adaptation in a population? | Adaptation is the process by which a population becomes better suited to its environment through the accumulation of advantageous traits over generations.
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| What are biotic factors in natural selection? | Biotic factors are interactions with other organisms such as competition, predation, and symbiosis that can influence which traits are advantageous.
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| What are abiotic factors in natural selection? | Abiotic factors are non-living environmental elements like temperature, climate, acidity, light, and geographic barriers that affect which traits provide survival advantages.
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| How does natural selection change gene frequencies? | Natural selection changes gene frequencies by increasing the frequency of alleles that contribute to advantageous traits and decreasing those linked to less favorable traits.
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| What evidence supports adaptation through natural selection? | Evidence includes observations of changes in trait distributions, survival rates, reproductive success related to environmental factors, and statistical and graphical analyses illustrating these changes.
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| What are the four Earth spheres involved in the carbon cycle? | The hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.
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| What does a quantitative model of the carbon cycle describe? | It describes the cycling of carbon among the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere, including concentrations and transfer rates.
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| What is the role of plants in the carbon cycle? | Plants capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
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| How does human activity affect the carbon cycle? | Human activities increase carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, affecting climate.
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| What is important to identify in carbon cycling models? | The relative amounts and rates of carbon transfer between Earth’s spheres and conservation of matter during cycling.
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| What limitation exists in carbon cycle models? | Models cannot account for all carbon present in Earth's systems.
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| What caused gradual atmospheric changes historically? | Plants and other organisms capturing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.
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| How does increased atmospheric CO2 affect climate? | It leads to changes in climate, including global warming.
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| What is meant by the simultaneous coevolution of Earth's systems and life on Earth? | It refers to the dynamic interactions where Earth’s systems and life evolve together, each influencing and altering the other continuously.
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| What was Earth’s atmosphere like shortly after its formation? | It had a different composition, lacking free oxygen and dominated by gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
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| What is the current composition of Earth's atmosphere? | It contains significant free oxygen due to photosynthetic organisms, along with nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other gases.
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| What evidence supports the emergence of photosynthetic organisms? | The presence of iron oxide formations (banded iron formations) caused by oxygen produced from photosynthesis.
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| How did free oxygen affect evolution and Earth’s systems? | Free oxygen increased weathering rates, led to iron oxide deposits, and allowed for the evolution of animal life dependent on oxygen.
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| How does the biosphere affect other Earth systems? Give examples. | Photosynthetic life altered the atmosphere; microbial life increased soil formation enabling land plants; coral evolution created reefs changing erosion and habitats.
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| What are causal links and feedback mechanisms between biosphere changes and Earth system changes? | Changes in life forms alter atmospheric gases, which affect geological processes, which in turn influence life evolution—a continuous feedback loop.
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| How do plants and other organisms contribute to atmospheric changes? | They capture carbon dioxide and release oxygen, gradually transforming the atmosphere.
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| Why is the coevolution of Earth’s surface and life described as dynamic and delicate? | Because the biosphere and Earth systems continuously influence each other through complex feedbacks that shape both life and the planet’s surface.
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