PSYC 271 Midterm 2

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Question

Answer

___ are electrically charged atoms

Ions

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Electrical potential aka voltage:

Difference in the concentration of charges between two solutions

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Voltage

electrostatic pressure

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4 important ions for neural conduction

Na, K, Cl, Calcium

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2 ways to measure membrane potentials

Voltmeter, or oscilloscope with electrical stimulator

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____ concentration is higher outside of the cell

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____ concentration is higher inside the cell

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Na is driven in by both ______ _______ and its _____ _____ (random motion)

electrostatic forces, concentration gradient

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K is driven _____ by electrostatic forces, and _____ by its concentration gradient

IN, OUT

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Sodium-potassium pump

active force (ATP) that exchanges 3NA+ inside for 2K outsode

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EPSP causes ______, and an ______probability of action potential. Ie Na or Ca influx

depolarization, increased

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IPSP causes _______, and a ________ probability of action potential. Ie Cl influx, K efflux

hyperpolarization, decreased

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PSPs are _______, and they are transmitted ______ and ______

graded, decrementally and rapidly

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In EPSP, it depolarizes the cell membrane (making it _____ ____), bringing it ____ to threshold and making it ____ likely that an action potential will fire

less negative, closer, more

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IPSP hyperpolarizes the cell membrane (making it ____ ______), bringing it ______ to threshold and making it _____ likely that an action potential will fire

more negative, further, less

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What is typically needed to cause a neuron to fire?

summation

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In order to generate an AP, the ______ of _____ must be reached near the axon

threshold of activation

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Integration of IPSPs and EPSPs must result in a potential of about ______ in order to generate an AP

-65mV

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3 examples of spatial summation of PSPs

2 simultaneous EPSP or IPSP to produce 1 greater one, or teo opposite effects to cancel one another out

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Temporal summation of PSPs

rapid succession sums a larger PSP

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Steps in ionic basis of action potentials:

Na channels open, Na rushes in (depolarization), K channels slowly open, K leaves cell (repolarization), Cell becomes hyperpolarized

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Resting membrane potential:

-70 mV, inside of cell has a negative charge relative to outside of cell

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Depolarization

membrane potential becomes less negative

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Threshold

point that voltage gated sodium channels open, AP occurs

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Repolarization

membrane potential becomes negative again, approaching the resting membrane potential

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Hyperpolarization:

membrane potential becomes even more negative than the resting membrane potential

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Refractory periods prevent the _____ movement of APs, limit the rate of firing

backward

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Absolute refractory period:

impossible to initiate another action potential, 1-2 ms after AP start

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Relative refractory period:

Threshold less negative than rest, more difficult to initiate another AP (more depolarization necessary)

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Conduction of action potentials is _____, _____, ______

active, slower, nondecremental

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Diffusion of Na+ triggers next ___ ____

action potential

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____ channels tightly packed, creating waves of depolarization

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Orthodromic conduction is transmission ___

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Antidromic conduction is transmission

away - can stimulate at axon terminals

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Nodes of ranvier AKA

saltatory conduction

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What kinds of axons are the fastest?

Myelinated, larger

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The Hidgkin-Huxley model of neural conduction is from ____ motor axons, which is _____ than that of ____ _____ neurons

squid, different, mammal cerebral

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Fo interneurons fire action potentials?

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Are dendrites able to fire action potentials?

Maybe

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Mammal cerebral action potentials vary in ____, ______, and ______

amplitude, duration, frequency

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Can mammalian cerebral axons fire potentials in the absence ofinput?

Maybe, tonically active

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Axoaxonic synapses

presynaptic inhibition/facilitation

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dendrodendritic synapses

bidirectional

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dendroaxonic synapses

rare

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axonal main shaft synapses

synapses between axon shafts - parallel side by side, synapse onto other

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nondirected synapses

common for monoamine neurotransmission - diffuse release of NT

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Some communication is through ____ _____ between cells

gap junctions

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_____ appear to modulate neuronal activity within their own domain

Astrocytes, communicate with adjacent ones through gap junctions

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Where are small-molecule neurotransmitters syntehsized

cytoplasm of axon terminal buttons

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Small molecule NTs packaging

packaged into synaptic vesicles by golgi complex at terminal button

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Large molecule neurotransmitter synthesis

in cytoplasm of cell body by ribosomes

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Packaging of large molecule neurotransmitter

packaged into synaptic vescicles by golgi complex

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Transport of large molecule neurotransmitter

transported to axon terminal by microtubules

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A single neuron can typically syntehsize and release one type of ____, one type of ____, or one type of ______ (coexistence)

small, large, each

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4 steps to NT release

AP arrives at terminal button, voltage gated calcium channels open, Ca++ enters, vesicles fuse, empty contents via exocytosis

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Ionotropic receptors AKA ______ or _______

ligand or NT gated ion channels

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Ionotropic receptors are ____ acting

Fast

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Ionotropic receptirs usually have a _____ effect

Transient

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Depending on the type, Ionotropic receptros can _____ or _____

depolarize (NA or CA), or hyperpolarize (Cl or K)

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Metabotropic receptors AKA

G-protein-couples receptors

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Metabotropic receptors are usually ____ acting

slower

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Metabotropic receptors have a ____ effect by modifying ___ ____

lasting, intracellular signalling

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Presynaptic autoreceptors are activated by _____ in the synapse, generally inhibits the amount of ____ released (braking mechanism_

neurotransmitter, neurotransmitter

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Neurotransmitter reuptake

pull NT back up into presynaptic neuron, repackaged and re-sent out

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Neurotransmitter degradation by enzymes

seek out and destroy neurotransmitters

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5 classes of NTs

Amino acids, monoamines, acetylcholine, unconventional neurotransmitters, neuropeptides

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AA NTs

Fast, typically binding to ionotrppic receptors. Glutamate, GAVA, aspartate, glycine

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Monoamine NTs

more diffuse, non-directed synapses. Metabotropic receptors with diverse functions, arise in brainstem. Catecholamines, indolamines

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Ach NTs

acetyl + choline, nicotinic (iono) & muscarinic (meta). Degraded by acetylcholinesterase. Many synapses in ANS

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What defines something as an unconventional neurotransmitter?

Does not fit into other categories, less understood

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2 types of unconventional neurotransmitters

Soluble gases that exist only briefly, endocannabinoids

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Soluble gases that exist only briefly

NO, CO. Backward/retrograde communication. Neural cytoplasm production, short acting (via membranes)

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Endocannabinoids

produced on-demand, released from dendrites, inhibit presynaptic neurons. rapidly degraded

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Neuropeptides are ____ ______ of amino acids

short chains

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the 5 categories of neuropeptides have a ______ of functions

variety

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Ex of neuropeptide

Endorphins ie Endogenous opiods, analgesia/reward system

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Agonists

Facilitate neurotransmitter's effects

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Antagonists

Reduce neurotransmitter's effects

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Drugs may impact ___ _____ of the synaptic transmission pathway

Any part

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Agonist drug effect on synthesis

Increases synthesis of neurotransmitter molecules

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Antagonistic drug effect on synthesis

Blocks synthesis of NT molecule

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Agonist drug on breakdown

Increases NT # by destroying degrading enzymes

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Antagonist drug on breakdown

NT molecules leak from vesicles, destroyed by degrading enzymes

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Agonist drug on exocytosis

increases NT release from terminal buttons

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Antagonist drug on exocytosis

Blocks NT release from terminal button

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Agonist drug on inhibitory feedback

binds to autoreceptors, blocks inhibitory effect on NT release

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Antagonist drug on inhibitory feedback

activates autoreceptors, inhibits NT release

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Agonist drug on activation

binds to postsynaptic receptor, activates/increases effect on NT molecule

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Antagonist drug on activation

receptor blocker, binds to postsynaptic receptors to block NT effect

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Agonist drug on deactivation

blocks deactivation of NT, blocking degradation or reuptake

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Antagonist drug on deactivation

Receptor blocker, binds to postsynaptic receptors to block NT effect

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3 influential lines of pharmacology research

acetylcholine receptor subtypes, endogenous opioids, antipsychotic drugs

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Historically, we used to think that each NT had ___ kind of receptor

one

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Different _____ selective to specific _____ subtypes, exerting different effects despite involving the same NT

drugs, receptor

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Nicotonic vs Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors:

Different locations, receptor function, and behavioural effects

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In PNS, nicotinic receptors:

Activation at neuromuscular junction stimulates muscle contraction

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In PNS, muscarinic receptors:

Activation slows heart and constricts pupils in ANS

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Ancient Greeks would consume _____ extracts for stomach ailments and pupil dilation

belladonna

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The PNS releases ______ on _______ receptors within iris sphincter muscles to constrict pupils

Acetylcholine, muscarinic

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_____, the main active ingredient of belladonna, blocks _____ receptors, blocking Ach effect on pupils

Atropine, muscarinic

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_______: Extract of certain vines used by South American natives as a paralytic poison for darts in hunting and war

Curare

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Curare blocks _____ receptors at the neuromuscular junction, causing _____

nicotinic, paralysis

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Benefit of using Curare in medical setting

no muscular movement during surgery, but artificial respiration needed

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Extracted toxin of botulism bacteria

Botox

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Botox prevents _____ release at the neuromuscular junction, causing paralysis and preventing ____, _____

acetylcholine, tremors, wrinkles

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Discovery of the endogenous opioids provided insight into what?

brain mechanisms of pleasure and pain

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Sticky resin obtained from the seed pods of the opium poppy, used for pleasurable effects

Opium

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Main active ingredient in Opium is _____, an analgesic

morphine

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Opiates bind to _____ in the midbrain

PAG

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Direct injection of opiates in PAG produces _____, so does electrical stimulation

Analgesia

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Endogenous morphine

Endorphins

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"in the head" opiates

enkephalins

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First antipsychotic drugs produced antischizophreic effects, but also _____ _____ symptoms

Parkinsonian-like

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Parkinson's disease associated with death of what? Where?

dopaminergic neurons, substantia nigra

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______ _____, such as cocaine and amphetamines can induce and exacerbate phycosis

Dopamine agonists

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Dopamine antagonists can _____ psychotic symptoms

reduce

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What are 2 X-ray based research techniques?

Contrast X-rays and CT scans

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What are 2 radioactivity based research techniques?

PET and SPECT

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What are 3 magnetic field-based research techniques?

MRI, DTI, fMRI

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______ tissues/objects absorb x-rays more than ___ tissues/objects

Dense, softer

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Are X rays normally useful for neuroimaging? Why or why not?

NO, brain looks like CSF

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What are X-rays good for

skull and bone fragments, foreign objects

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X-rays are _____ and can damage tissue

carcinogenic

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X-rays give a ____ image of density

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Contrast X-rays inject ____-____ dye, which _______ X-rays differently than surrounding tissue into the structure of interest

radio-opaque, absorbs

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_____ ______ is excellent at imaging blood vessels

Cerebral angiography

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CT scans are X-rays from ____ _____, allowing for a computation of a _____ image of density

multiple angles, 3D

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Do CT scans have high or low spatial resolution?

Relatively low

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Health effects of CT better or worse than X-ray? Why?

Worse, more images taken

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SPECT measures _____ _____ ____ of a radiolabelled tracer in 3D

local blood flow

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SPECT radiolabelled tracer continually releases _____ as it decays

positrons

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Typical examples of radiolabelled tracers used in SPECT

inert gas, or tracers with up to 3 day half lifeintravenously

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SPECT tracers usually administered _____

Intravenously

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SPECT has very _____ temporal resolution

low (minutes)

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SPECT is excellent for measuring ____ _____ of interest

specific substances

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What is SPECT used to detect?

Alzheimers - decreased temporal-parietal metabolism

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PET has the same features as SPECT, except what?

Positron quickly annihilated by free electrons, releasing 2 photons in opposite directions

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PET tracers have longer or shorter half lives than SPECT?

shorter

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What is a common radiotracer used for PET? what does it do?

2-DG, taken up by active NTs (not metabolized) anywhere glucose is taken up

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Why is PET expensive

Tracer production on site with expensive cyclotron particle accelerator

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PET tracers are usually administered ____ or ____

intravenously, inhaled

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Pet has ____ spatial and temporal resolution than SPECT, but is more expensive

greater

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Constructed image from measures electromagnatic signals emitted by H atoms as they return to alignment with a strong magnetic field after a radio-frequency burst

MRI

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MRI has very ____ resolution 3D images

high

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There is high ____ between white and gray matter in MRIs

contrast

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What can MRIs be combined with? Examples?

Functional scans: fMRI, EEG, PET

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Exceptions to MRI safety/non-invasiveness

tattoos, metallic devices, pacemakers

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uses MRI and echo-planar imagine tech to measure subtle magnetic field fluctuations in a substance of interest

fMRI

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fMRI, fluctuations of magnetic field reflects what?

Cognitive activity

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what response does fMRI measure?

BOLD - blood oxygen deoxygenation level dependent

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What can fMRI be used to detect alongside BOLD?

Cerebral blood flow (CBF), dopamine

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What technique do both PET and fMRI use? What does this control for?

Paired-image subtraction/ controls for external thought, isolates for actual elucidated response

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What does functional connectivity analysis measure?

Low frequency fluctuations, regional homegeneity

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Diffusion Tensor Imaging measures pathways along which ____ _____ rapidly diffuse

water molecules

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DTI tracts indicate how the brain is _____

connected

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fUS imaging

Functional ultrasound

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fUS imaging uses ultrasouns to measure changes in _____ _____ in particular brain regions

blood volume

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When a brain region becomes active, blood levels increase there, altering the _____ of ultrasound through that brain region

passage

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Benefits of fUS

cheap, prtable, useful for those who can't use PET or MRI

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fUS can create small, permanent _____ at high amplitudes

lesions

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fMRI signals is a process that occurs many times/second, so signals can be _____ to one another

added

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The default mode network is _____ _____ throughout the brain

widely distributed

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What is the default mode network?

Attention to own thoughts, not the outside world.

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Default mode network is a source of ____ ____, actively unrelated to a task

noise variance

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fNIRS uses _____-_______ ______ to estimate hemodynamic activity

near-infrared light

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fNIRS involves measuring changes in _____ and ____________ concentration

oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin

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Measures electical activity on the scalp and is a reflection of neuronal synchrony

EEG

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EEG can be used to diagnose _____, as it has excellent ______ resolution, but poor ________ resolution

epilepsy, temporal, spatial

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EEG measures the ______ of brain waves

frequency

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How does one increase the spatial resolution of EEG?

Increasing the number of electrodes

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EEG signalling averages uses __________ to match EEG signals to repeated sensory, cognitive, or behavioural trials

event-related potentials

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EEG _______ cancels out after a certain amount of trials

randomness

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Early EEG components are usually related to ______ features (exogenous components)

sensory

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Later EEG components are usually related to _______ components (endogenous conponents)

cognitive

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Small waves immediately after click, from sensory nuclei far from recording

Far Field Potentials

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Measures tiny magnetic fields of the brain created perpendicular to the electrical current

Magnetoencephalography

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For MEG to be effective, patient must be inside room _____ ____ for magnetic fields, because tech is sensitive to magnetic fields created by other objects

heavily insulated

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brain electrical currents create _____ _____ _____

tiny magnetic fields

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Tiny brain magnetic fields are detected by _____

coils

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Pros of MEG

both high temporal and spatial resolution, excellent for primary sensory/motor cortices

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measures the changing difference in the voltage between two large electrodes placed on the skin above a large muscle

Electromyography

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What does EMG measure?

level of tension in muscle (spike rate)

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What is electrooculagraphy (EOG)?

Eye movements recorded by placing 4 electrodes around the eye

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EOG has been replaced by what?

More sophisticated eye tracking methods

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The general level of skin conductance associated with a particular situation

Skin Conductance Level

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A rapid change in skin conductance in response to a particular event

Skin conductance response

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Example of skin conductance response uses?

Polygraph tests

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Electrocardiograms measure what

Heart rate

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Blood pressure is measured via a

sphygmomanometer

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Measurement of blood/air volume in a body structure ie penis, fingers

Plethysmography

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation temporarily _________ localized brain function

decreases

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If behaviour from TMS is disrupted, that means what?

That the deactivated part of the brain is causing the bahaviour

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Transcranial electrical stimulation _______ brain function by passing ____ _____ through the cortex

altering, electrical current

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In tES, is the current strong enough to elicit an action potential?

NO, it changes the resting membrane threshold - changing how/when it is activated

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How does transcranial direct current stimulation work?

excitability increases at anodal electrode

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Transcranial alternating current stimulation alternates current between ______

electrodes

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tACS entrains neurons to fire at a particular ______, based on _____ of stimulation

frequency, strength

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Transcranial random noise stimulation is the same as tACS, except ______ changes randomly

frequency

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tRNS has different effects depending on _____ of stimulation

duration

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Invasive physiological research methods are performed almost exclusively on _____ models

animal

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Stereotaxic surgery uses stereotaxic ______ and instrument

atlas

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Stereotaxic surgery allows accurate placement of what?

lesions, probes, electrodes

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In a _______ lesion, tissue is sucked up into a pipette

aspiration

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What remains behind following an aspiration lesion? why?

white matter, blood vessels. Higher durability

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________-________ lesions occur when high-frequency currents are administered through the tip of an electrode

Radio-frequency

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What is the primary factor for radio-frequency lesions?

heat

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Radio frequency lesions everything where?

at tip

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Knife cut lesions are useful for _____

tracts

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Reversible lesions temporarily _______ an area

inactivate

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examples of reversible lesions

Lidocaine, cold

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Excitotoxic lesions excite neurons past the point of what?

Survival

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Excitotoxic lesions spares what?

tracts and blood vessels

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Chemical lesions produce _____ selective lesions than electrical lesions

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Important to keep in mind that after lesion, deficit may be how the incomplete system _____ ___ that missing piece

compensates for

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Lesions can give us a false sense of ________

localization

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What is a mild kind of lesion? Complete/stronger lesion?

Unilateral, bilateral

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What kind of stimulation typically has the opposite effect of lesions?

electrical stimulation

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Intracellular unit recording measures changes in the ___ _____ of a neuron over time, requiring a ______ positioned inside a neuron

membrane potential, microelectrode

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Why is it nearly impossible to record intracellularly in a freely moving animal?

Hard to keep microelectrode inside neuron

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Extracellular unit recording places a microelecrode ____ the neuron

near

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Extracellular unit recording signals a series of _____, which indicate _____ ______ from a nearby neuron

spikes, action potential

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Spikes of the same ______ are assumed to come from the same neuron

amplitude

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Multiple-unit recording provides an indication of the _____ ____ _____ of many neurons in the general vicinity of the electrode tip

rate of firing

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Invasive EEG uses electrodes where?

on the surface of the brain

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What does invasive EEG provide?

more accurate recordings than normal (scalp) EEG

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The route of drug administration influences the ____ and _____ to which the drug reaches its site of action

rate, degree

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Difficulties of oral ingestion in non-human subjects?

need to be able and willing to ingest, may leave some unconsumed

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Absorption via the digestive tract is _________

unpredictable

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Inhalation absorbs drugs through _______ in lungs

capillaries

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Downsides of inhalation

regulation can be difficult, can damage lungs

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Absorption through mucous membrane entry points:

nose, mouth, rectum

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Hypodermic injection bypasses ___ ____

digestive tract

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Into peritoneal cavity

Intraperitoneally

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Under the skin

Subcutaneously

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Into large muscles

Intramuscularly

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Into veins, most direct

Intravenously

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______ injection is injection into CNS

Central

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Central injection bypasses digestive tract and ____ ____ _____

Blood Brain Barrier

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Into a ventricle to affect the whole brain

Intraventricular

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Autoradiography measures the location of _______ of interest when the brain is active during an _____

tracers, event

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Difference between PET scan and autoradiography

have to kill subjects to get results

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Cerebral dialysis measures specific substances in _____

vivo

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Immunocytochemistry creates ______ for desired protein

antibodies

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In Situ Hybridization locates __________ sequences in the brain/chromosome

mRNA/DNA

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Organisms lacking a ______ of interest

gene

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Replacing one gene with another gene

gene replacement

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CRISPR/Cas9 edit genes at a particular time of ______-

development

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Optogenetics is the combination of _______ and _____ methods to achieve gain or loss of function in specific cells of living tissue

genetic, optical

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Current neurophychological assessments focus more on the ______ of a patient

function

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Brain scanning is best at _____ _____ or metabolic disturbances, but lack ______ to other problems

gross anatomical, sensitivity

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Can a single neurophychological test detect all brain damage?

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What is a standard battery of neuropsychological tests?

variety of tests that combine to discriminate between brain-damaged and healthy individuals

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Problem with the standard battery of neurophychological tests?

Poorly discriminate brain-damaged from psychiatric illness

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What is the HRB test?

Halstead-Reitan Battery - historically most widely-used

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HRB Category Test

problem solving using abstract reasoning or hypothesis testing using geometric shapes

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HRB tactual performance test

placing varied shapes in holes without sight

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HRB Rhythm test

detect similarities and differences between rhythms

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HRB speech sounds perception test

match spoken nonsense syllables with written forms

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HRB finger tapping test

Tap index finger as fast as possible for 10 seconds

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HRB trail making test

tests visual attention and task switching

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HRB grip strength

Tests motor difficulties of each hemisphere

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Customized test batteries are used to measure ________, with more precise tests used in follow-ups

deficits

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Test batteries are based on ______ ______ of psychological functioning

modern theories

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Cognitive _____, not just performance is measured in customized test batteries

stragegy

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3 tests of the common neuropsychological battery measure what?

Intelligence, memory, language and language lateralization

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Verbal comprehension scale

general verbal skills including verbal fluency, relies on prior knowledge

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Perceptual reasoning scale

examines a problem, drawing upon visual motor/spatial skills

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Working memory scale

hold information so it can be used to solve a problem

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Processing speed scale

focus attention, quickly scan, discriminate between, and sequentially order visual information

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How do they measure which hemisphere is dominant for language?

Inject sodium amytal, if subject becomes mute then the hemisphere ipsilateral to injection is dominant

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What is species common behaviours?

behaviours displayed by virtually all members of a species

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What do the open field tests and the elevated plus maze test for

anxiety and emotion

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What are the three measures of emotionality

Activity, thigmotaxis, defecation

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In the colony-intruder paradigm, rats are placed in a chamber with a _________,_________ rat

larger, dominant

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How to measure sexual behaviour in female rats

lordosis

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How to measure sexual behaviour in male rats

Mount to intromission, time to remount after ejeculation

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3 views of learning that conditioned taste aversion challenges

step-by-step process, temporal continuity, principle of equipotentiality

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The morris water maze is used to study _________ ability

spatial

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conditioned defensive burying is used to study _________ drugs/effects

anti-anxiety

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pupil size is a compromise between _________ and _________, is regulated by the _________

sensitivity and acuity, iris

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The lens focuses light on the _________, in a process called _________

retina, accomodation

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When the lens is cylindrical, focus is on a _________ object

near

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When the lens is flattened, focus is on a _________ object

far

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Most of what is seen is seen through _________ eyes

both

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Binocular disparity is greater for _________ things, helps to create _________ _________

closer, depth perception

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Predator eye placement

front

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Prey eye placement

side

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how many layers in the retina

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the fovea has high _________ vision

acuity

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optic disk involves the _________ spot and _________

blind, completion

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Can any species see in absolute darkness?

no, some can see in very little light

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Wavelength is associated closely with the perception of

colour

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intensity is closely associated with the perception of

brightness

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_________ is the turning of the eyes slightly inward when looking at something nearby

convergence

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In the retina, the cells at the _________ are the first to detect light

back

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In a sense, the retina is _________

inside-out

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Light passes through several _________ layers in the retina before reaching its receptors

cell

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How many layers are in the retina?

five

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Receptor layer of the retina

rods and cones

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horizontal cell layer of retina

lateral communication

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amacrine cell later of retina

lateral communication

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The fovea is the _________-_________ area near center of retina

high-acuity

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The _________ of the ganglion cell later in the fovea reduces _________ from cells between the pupil and the retina

thinning, distortion

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the optic disk is where axons of _________ ganglion cells penetrate _________, exit eye through optic nerve

retinal, retina

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the duplexity theory of vision states that cones and rods mediate what?

different kinds of vision

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cones have _________ (daytime) vision, giving _________ colour information in good lighting

phototopic, high-acuity

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rods have _________ (night-time) vision, with _________, allowing for low acuity vision in dim light, lacking _________ and colour information

scototpic, high-sensitivity, detail

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Cones have _________ convergence on retinal ganglion cell cone-fed circuits

low

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rods have _________ convergence on retinal ganglion cell rod-fed circuits

high

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only _________ are found at the fovea

cones

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are cones or rods found in the blind spot?

neither

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There are different _________ sensitivity curves for photopic and scotopic vision

spectral

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Quick eye movements (_________) are integrated into a stable perception

saccdes

🗑

the visual system responds to _________

change

🗑

Transduction is the _________ of one form of energy to another

conversion

🗑

visual transduction is the conversion of _________ to neural signals by visual receptors

light

🗑

Visual transduction information is transmitted via

inhibition

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What is the pigment found in rods?

Rhodopsin

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Rhodospin is a receptor that responds to _________ rather than NTs

light

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In the dark, rhodopsin Na+ channels are partially _________, (partial _________), _________ glutamate

open, depolarized, releasing

🗑

When light strikes rhodopsin, Na+ channels _________, rods _________, _________ glutamate

close, hyperpolarize, inhibiting

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In both eyes, left hits _________ and right hits _________

right, left

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Each eye only processes _________ of visual field, contralaterally

half

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The _________ hemiretina of each eye connects to the _________ lateral geniculate nucleus,

right/left, right/left

🗑

Magnocellular layers have _________ cell bodies, are the _________ 2 laters of LGN

big, bottom

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Magnocellular bodies are particularily responsive to _________, input primarily from _________

movement, rods

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Parvocellular layers have _________ cell bodies, are the _________ 4 layers of LGN

small, top

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Parvocellular layers are responsive to _________, _________, _________/_________ objects, and input primarily from cones

colour, detail, still/slow

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Retinotopic organization of primary visual cortex means that information received at _________ portions of the retina _________ _________ in the striate cortex

adjacent, remains adjacent

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Edges are points of _________

contrast

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Mach bands are _________ striped that the visual system _________ for enhancement

non-existent, creates

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Mach bands makes edges _________ to see, are a consequence of _________ _________

easier, lateral inhibition

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_________ _________ is the area of the visual field within which it is possible for a visual stimulus to influence the firing of a GIVEN neuron

receptive field

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what was hubel and wiesel's methodology to examine visual fields?

Curare-d a cat, placed extracellular electrode near a neuron, mapped the receptive field

🗑

In the receptive fields of RGS system neurons, there were _________ seen at all three levels

similarities

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Receptive fields of _________ area are smaller than those in the periphery

foveal

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Neuron's receptive fields are _________ in shape, and are _________ (respond to a particular eye)

circular, monocular

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Many neurons at each level have receptive fields with _________ and _________ areas

excitatory, inhibitory

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The two patterns of neuronal responding are _________ firing, or _________ followed by off firing

on, inhibition

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firing responds best to _________ _________ "on" area

fully illuminated

🗑

firing responds poorly to _________ light

diffuse

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firing responds to _________ _________ between centers and peripheries of their visual fields

brightness contrast

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Many cells have receptive fields with a _________-_________ organization

center surround

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on/off-center neurons have excitatory and inhibitory regions separated by a _________ _________

circular boundary

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Most neurons in V1 _________ circular receptive fields

do not have

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Simple striate cells respond best to _________ of a particular orientation, and are _________

edges/bars, monocular

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Complex striate cells respond best to _________ _________ of a particular orientation

moving edges/bars

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Binocular complex striate cells - over half are _________, the other half display _________ _________

binocular, ocular dominance

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End-stopped extrastriate cells respond best to _________ _________ of a particular _________ and orientation

moving edges/bars/corners, length

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Simple striate cells have _________ receptive fields, with on and off regions that are _________ and _________ sensitive

rectangular, orientation, location

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all simple striate cells are _________, and send information to _________ cells

monocular, complex

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Not all visual cortex cells respond to _________ stimuli

previous stimuli

🗑

Complex striate cells have _________ receptive fields than simple

larger

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Simple, complex, and end-stopped cells all have a preferred _________ and _________ _________

orientation, receptive field

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End-stopped cells fire to _________ _________ of a specific length, or _________ _________/_________

moving lines, moving corners/angles

🗑

Ocular dominance columns are _________ vertical columns with the same receptive fields and ocular dominance

functional

🗑

Is retinotopic organization maintained in ocular dominance columns?

Yes

🗑

What is the trichromatic theory of colour

3 types of cone cells, each with a different spectral sensitivity

🗑

short spectral sensitivity

violet/blue

🗑

medium spectral sensitivity

green/yellow

🗑

long spectral sensitivity

orange/red

🗑

Opponent-process theory of colour processing:

two different classes of cells that encode colour, another to encode brightness

🗑

which colour processing theory accounts for colour afterimages and colour that cannot appear together?

opponent-process theory

🗑

Which colour processing theory is correct?

both - colour by cones operates according to componenet theory, while opponent processing is seen at all subsequent levels

🗑

Colour constancy is the _________ of the same colour despite the change in _________

perception, wavelength

🗑

Retinex theory states that colour perception is based on the _________ of light of different wavelengths that a surface reflects

proportion

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As visual information flows through hierarchy, receptive fields become _________ and respond to ...

larger, more complex and specific stimuli

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Scotomas are areas of _________ in contralateral visual field due to damage to the _______ _________ cortex

blindness, primary visual

🗑

Blindsight is a response to visual stimuli outside _________ _________ of "seeing"

conscious awareness

🗑

what is a possible explanation of blindsight?

island of functional cells within scotoma

🗑

Lesions in each area of the secondary visual cortex and association cortex result in _________ deficits

specific

🗑

How many functionally distinct areas have been identified so far in the secondary visual and association cortexes?

🗑

What are the two streams of visual processing

Dorsal and ventral streams

🗑

The dorsal stream is the pathway from _________ to _________ to _________.

primary visual cortex, dorsal prestriate cortex, posterior parietal cortex

🗑

dorsal stream is the _________ pathway, and for the _________

where, control of behaviour

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Ventral stream is the pathway from the _________ to _________ to _________

primary visual cortex, ventral prestriate cortex, inferotemporal cortex

🗑

The ventral stream is the _________ pathway, and for the _________

what, conscious perception of objects

🗑

Damage to secondary/association cortex may lead to (3)

visual agnosia, prosopagnosia, akinetopsia

🗑

Visual agnosia is the inability to distinguish between

visual stimuli

🗑

Prosopagnosia is the inability to distinguish

faces

🗑

Akinetopsia is a deficiency in the ability to see

movement in a normal, smooth fashion

🗑

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