Learning
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| Learning | A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. The most crucial ingredient in all this is experience
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| Habituation | An organism's decreasing response to stimulus with repeated exposure to it
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| Habituation Example | A sea slug learns to withdraw its gill after repeatedly being squirted by water. After repeated squirting, the withdrawal response lessens
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| Associative Learning | Learning that certain events occur together
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| Conditioning | The process of learning associations
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| Conditiong Example | If a sea slug on repeated occasions receives an electric shock just after being squirted with water, its protective withdrawal response to a squirt of water grows stronger
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| Classical Conditioning | Forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a learned response. An organisms forms associations of events it does not control.
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| Classical Conditioning Example | Pets who learn that the sound of electric can opener signals the arrival of their food
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| Operant Conditioning | An association made between a behavior and a consequence for that behaviour
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| Operant Conditioning Example | Seals in an aquarium will repeat behaviors, such as slapping and barking, that will promote people to toss them a herring.
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| Observational Learning | Learning that happens through the process of watching and imitating other
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| Observational Learning Example | After one chimpanzee sees a second chimp open a box that contains a food reward, the first animal opens a similar box with great speed
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| Ivan Pavlov | His research on classical conditioning highlighted that many different species of animals, including humans, can be classically conditioned. His experiments demonstrated how learning can be studied objectively
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| Unconditioned Stimulus | A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
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| Unconditioned Stimulus Example | In Pavlov's experiments on the salivary conditioning of dogs, this was the presentation of food
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| Unconditioned Response | An automatic, natural reaction to something
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| Unconditioned Response Example | Jerking your hand off a hot stove
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| Respondent Behavior | An automatic/ reflexive response to some stimulus
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| Respondent Behavior Example | Blushing when embarassed
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| Conditioned Stimulus | A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated associations with the unconditioned stimulus, becomes the new stimulant
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| Conditioned Stimulus Example | Infants develop a fear of roses after roses are presented with a electric shock. The roses are a conditioned response
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| Conditioned Response | The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus
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| Conditioned Response Example | A child's learned fear at the sight of a hypdermic needle is a conditioned response
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| Acquisition Part One | The first stage of learning. It refers to the time period when the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response.
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| Acquisition Part Two | For the most rapid of this , the conditioned stimulus should be presented shortly (about a half-second) before the conditioned stimulus
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| Acquisition Example | By a pairing a light with a shock to a flatworm. The stage in which the flatworm's contraction response to light is established and gradually strengthened is this
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| Higher-Order Conditioning | Associating a conditioned stimulus with a new neutral stimulus can create a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
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| Higher-Order Conditioning Example | If a tone that regularly signals food triggers a salivation response, then a light that becomes associated with that tone may also begin to trigger salivation. A child who fears dogs after being bitten shows fear when he hears a dog bark
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| Extinction | The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus
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| Spontaneous Recovery Part One | Provides evidence that a conditioned response is not completely eliminated during extinction
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| Extinction Example | After Pavlov's had conditioned a dog to salivate to a tone, he repeatedly sounded the tone without presenting the food which caused extinction to take place.
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| Spontaneous Recovery Part Two | Refers to the reappearance, after a time lapse of an extinguished conditioned response
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| Spontaneous Recovery Example | Long after being bitten by a stray dog, you found that you fear dogs seem to have disappeared. To your surprise, however, when you are recently confronted by a stray dog, you experience a sudden twinge of anixety
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| Generalization | The tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
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| Generalization Example | After receiving a painful shot from a female nurse in a pink uniform, 3-year-old Vaclav experiences fear of any woman wearing a pink dress
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| Discrimination | In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
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| Discrimination Example | After recovering from a serious motorcycle accident, you are afraid to ride a motorcycle but not a bicycle
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| Cognitive Process Part One | The process of thinking. It includes awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgement. The cognitive perspective emphasizes that classical conditioning depends on an organism's expectation that an unconditioned stimulus will follow a conditioned stimulus
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| Cognitive Process Part Two | The predictability rather than the frequency of conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus associations is crucial for classical conditioning
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| Robert Rescorla's Model for Classical Conditioning | Different from Ivan Pavlov's. Showed the cognition is important in an animal learning that one stimulus reliably predicts another stimulus
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| Robert Rescorla's Example | After repeatedly taking alcohol spiked with a nausea-producing drug, people with alcohol dependence may fail to develop an aversive reaction to alcohol because they blame their nausea on the drug.
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| Learned Helplessness Part One | A behavior in which an organism forced to endure aversive, painful, or otherwise pleasant stimuli, become unable to or unwilling to avoid subsequent encounter with those stimuli
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| Learned Helplessness Part Two | In a classic experiment, dogs strapped into a harness and given repeated and avoidable shocks develop this
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| Learned Helplessness Example | After experiencing inescapable brutalities as a prisoner in a Nazi concentration camp, Mr. Sternberg became apathetic, stopped eating, and gave up all efforts to physically survive the ordeal
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| Biological Predispositions | Classical conditioning is constrained by this; animals most readily learn the specific associations that promote survival
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| Garcia and Koelling's Findings | Taste on aversion in rats challenged the idea that any perceivable neutral stimulus can serve as a condition stimulus
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| Garcia Effect | Rats easily learned to associate nausea producing radiation treatment with novel tastes; they avoided flavored water because they associate it with illness
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| Garcia Effect Example | Wolves that were tempted into eating sheep carcasses laced with poison developed an aversion to sheep meat
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| Watson and Rayner's Study of Little Albert | demonstrates how emotions and behaviors specifically fears, can be learned through classical conditioning. Little Albert developed a fear of rats a white rat was paired with a loud noise
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| Little Albert | After learning to fear a white rat, he generalized his fear to anything white and furry, including rabbits
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| B.F. Skinner | Behavior is controlled primarily by external influences. His critics have claimed that he neglected the importance of the individual's personal freedom
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| Operant Behaviour | Voluntary behavior that produce rewarding or punishing consequences
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| Operant Conditioning Part One | A form of learning in which behavior is influenced by its consequences. Learning associations between one's own personal actions and resulting events is relevant to the process of operant conditioning
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| Operant Conditioning Part Two | To modify your own behavior using operant conditioning you should monitor and record the actual frequency of the operant you wish to promote
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| Operant Conditioning Example | A child's thumb-sucking becomes habitual because she begins to feel less anxious whenever she sucks her thumb
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| B.F. Skinner and E.L. Thorndike | Ones work elaborated with the other's called the Law of Effect
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| Law of Effect | Refers to the tendency to repeat behaviors that are rewarded
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| Law of Effect Example | Cats received a fish reward whenever they maneuvered themselves out of an enclosed puzzle box. With successive trials, the cats escaped from the box with increasing speed
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| Skinner Box | A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a reward
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| Shaping | The process of reinforcing successively closer approximations to a desired behaviour
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| Shaping Example | An animal trainer is teaching a dog to balance on a ball. Initially he gives a treat for approaching a ball, then only for placing its front paws on the ball, and finally for climbing on the ball
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| Discrimintive Stimulus Part One | A cue that indicates a kind of consequence that is likely to occur after a response. This is the tendency for a response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present
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| Discriminitive Stimulus Example | In shaping a dog to "shake", the command "shake" would be this
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| Reinforcement | Involves the introduction of a pleasant stimulus or the withdrawal of something unpleasant
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| Punishment | Involves the withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus or the introduction of something pleasant
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| Reinforcer | An even that increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows
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| Positive Reinforcement | The addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in the future. It increases the rate of operant responding
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| Positive Reinforcement Example | Picking up a baby when it cries, causes the baby to become a real cry baby
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| Negative Reinforcement | The removal, stopping, or avoidance of a negative outcome or aversive stimulus that strengthens a response or behavior. It increase the rate of operant responding
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| Negative Reinforcement Example | Running two miles every day after school because it reduces stress and anxiety levels
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| Primary Reinforcer | Occurs naturally and does not require learning. They are innately satisfying and fulfill biological needs
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| Primary Reinforcer Example | Food is naturally satsfying
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| Conditioned Reinforcer | A stimulus that acquires reinforcing power by association with a primary reinforcer.
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| Conditioned Reinforcer Example | Applause for an excellent piano recital helps you obtain the primary reinforcer of happiness. Money helps you obtain primary reinforcers such as food
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| Immediate Reinforcer | Most animals are best conditioned through this, these are delivered immediately after the desired behavior is performed
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| Delayed Reinforcer | Humans, unlike many other animals, can be conditioned with this; reinforcers not delivered until a long time after the desired behavior
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| Punishment | An even that decreases the behavior that precedes it
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| Positive Punishment | The addition of an unfavorable outcome or event following and undesirable behavior. These decrease decrease the rate of operant responding
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| Positive Punishment Example | Getting a parking ticket under your windshield wiper
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| Negative Punishment | The removal of something desirable in order to reduce the occurrence of a particular behavior
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| Negative Punishment Example | When Michael hit his sister, his mom placed him in a time-out be having him stand in a corner for 4 minutes
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| Continuous Reinforcement | Reinforcement every time a particular response occurs
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| Partial Reinforcement Part One | Reinforcement provided only on some occasions when the response occurs
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| Partial Reinforcement Part Two | If you want a behavior to be learned quickly and be resistant to extinction, you should use continuous reinforcement, you should use this until the response is mastered and then follow with a period of partial reinforcement
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| Partial Reinforcement Example | Teaching a child to use the toilet
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| Fixed-Ratio Schedule | Reinforcing a behavior after a specific number of responses has occurred. Coffee Shops that reward customers with one free cup after every ten coffee purchases
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| Fixed-Interval Schedule | Reinforcing behavior after a specific period of time has elapsed. Leading to a choppy stopstart pattern of operant responding
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| Variable-Ration Schedule | Reinforcing a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses. Inserting coins into a slot machine
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| Variable-Interval Schedule | Reinforcing a behavior after an unpredictable time period has elapsed. A teacher telling her students that pop quizzes will be given at unpredictable times throughout the semester. Leads to a slow but steady rate of operant responding
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| B.F. Skinner Disciplinary | For the purposes of effective childrearing, most psychologists favour the use of reinforcement over punishment. Punishment is a potentially hazardous way to control young children's behaviors because the use of punishment can lead to fear and avoidance
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| B.F. Skinner Cognition | Operant response rates remain highest when individuals anticipate that their behavior will actually lead to further reinforcement.
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| B.F. Skinner Cognition Example | Learning to expect that whenever you study diligently for a test, you will receive good grades
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| Latent Learning | "Hidden" learning that only manifests itself when reinforcement is offered. Not all learning is immediately apparent. Sometimes learning only becomes evident when we need to utilize it.
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| Latent Learning Example | If rats are allowed to wander through a complicated maze, they will subsequently run the maze with few errors when a food reward is placed at the end. These rats develop cognitive maps; mental representations of mazes they have explored
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| Insight Learning | Learning that occurs after an extended period of thinking about a problem but little or no direct, systematic interaction without the environment
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| Insight Learning Example | Chimpanzees discover a novel way to reach a banana hung out of their reach
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| Intrinsic Motivation | The desire to engage in an activity for the sake of its own enjoyment. Promising rewards for what people already enjoy undermines this
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| Intrinsic Motivation Example | You genuinely enjoy reading and looking up the meaning of words you do not know
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| Extrinsic Motivation | The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
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| Extrinsic Motivation Example | A teacher promising a gold star to students each time they learn a new word
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| Instinctive Drifts | Animals tend to revert from newly learned habits to their biologically predisposed behaviors
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| Instinctive Drifts Example | Researchers trained pigs to pick up large wooden "dollars" and deposit them in a piggy bank. Instead of picking up the wooden discs, the pigs would drop them, push them with their snouts, and the pick them up to put them in the piggy bank
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| Biofeedback Part One | Electronically recording, amplifying, and displaying information regarding subtle physiological responses. Early research on biofeedback indicated that people could learn to control bodily functions regulated by the autonomic nervous system
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| Biofeedback Part Two | Biofeedback is beneficial in its capacity to facilitate the relaxation response; psychologists use biofeedback to provide clients information about muscle tension
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| Biofeedback Example | Learning to relax by being provided information on changes in heart rate
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| Classical Conditioning comparison with Operant Part One | Reponse; Involuntary, automatic. Acquisition: Associating events; CS announces US. Extinction: CR decreases when CS is presented alone. Cognitive Processes: Organisms develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US.
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| Classical Conditioning comparison with Operant Part Two | Biological Predispositions: Nautral predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.
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| Operant Conditioning comparison with Classical Part One | Response: Voluntary, operates on environment. Acquistion: Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher) Extinction: Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.
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| Operant Conditioning comparison with Classical Part Two | Cognitive Processes: Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.
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| Operant Conditioning comparison with Classical Part Three | Biological Predispositions: Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones
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| Observational Learning | Our ability to learning by witnessing the behaviors of others. A key factor that influences whether we well imitate a model is whether a model is rewarded or punished
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| Observational Learning Example | You begin dance classes because your older sister goes to dance classes
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| Mirror Neuron Part One | Provides a biological basis for observational learning and imitation. Neuroscientists have discovered these in the front lobe adjacent to the motor cortex.
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| Mirror Neuron Part Two | These become active both when people watch an action being performed and when they perform the action themselves.
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| Mirror Neuron Example | Researchers discovered that regions of the frontal lobe activated when a monkey moves peanuts to its own mouth are also activated when the monkey simply observes other monkeys move peanuts to their mouths.
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| Bandura's Experiments Part One | Preschool children pounded and kicked a large inflatable Bobo doll that an adult had just beaten on. This indicates that modelling is important in learning.
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| Bandura's Experiments Part Two | These also demonstrated that the power of observational learning depends on whether we see the people as similar to us
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| Prosocial Affects | Experiment suggest that children exposed to a model who says one thing and does another talk in ways consistent with what the model says and act in ways consistent with what the model says.
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| Prosocial Affetcs Example | Mr. Schneider frequently tells his children that it is important to wash their hands before meals, but rarely does so himself. His children will learn to preach the virtues of cleanliness but not practice it
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| Anitsocial Affects | Viewing violence leads children and teenagers to behave aggresively; it leads to desensitization and imitation.
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| The Violence Viewing Effects | Is especially pronounced when the observed violence goes unpunished
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| Antisocial Affects Example | Researchers found a dramatic increase in children's play immediately after they viewed a violent video
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