Test #2

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Term

Definition

Learning is

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

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In Pavlov's original experiment with dogs, the meat served as

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In Pavlov's original experiment with dogs, the tone was initially a(n) ________ stimulus; after it was paired with meat, it became a(n) ________ stimulus.

neutral; conditioned

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When a conditioned stimulus is presented without an accompanying unconditioned stimulus, ________ will soon take place.

extinction

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In Pavlov's original experiment with dogs, salivation to meat was the

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In Pavlov's studies of classical conditioning of a dog's salivary responses, spontaneous recovery occurred

when the CS was reintroduced following extinction of the CR and a rest period.

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The type of learning associated with Skinner is

operant conditioning.

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A response that leads to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus is one being

negatively reinforced.

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Punishment is a controversial way of controlling behavior because

behavior is not forgotten and may return.punishing stimuli often create fear.punishment often increases aggressiveness.

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Which of the following is an example of reinforcement?

presenting a positive stimulus after a response.removing an unpleasant stimulus after a response.being told that you have done a good job.

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For operant conditioning to be most effective, when should the reinforcers be presented in relation to the desired response?

immediately after

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The “piecework,” or commission, method of payment is an example of which reinforcement schedule?

fixed-ratio

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Putting on your coat when it is cold outside is a behavior that is maintained by

negative reinforcement.

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On an intermittent reinforcement schedule, reinforcement is given

only some of the time.

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You teach your dog to fetch the paper by giving him a cookie each time he does so. This is an example of

operant conditioning.

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Mirror neurons are found in the brain's ________ and are believed by some scientists to be the neural basis for ________.

frontal lobe; observational learning

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Regarding the impact of watching television violence on children, most researchers believe that

watching violence on television leads to aggressive behavior.

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Visual sensory memory is referred to as

iconic memory.

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Our short-term memory span is approximately ________ items.

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Memory techniques such as acronyms and the peg-word system are called

mnemonic devices.

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One way to increase the amount of information in memory is to group it into larger, familiar units. This process is referred to as

chunking.

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The spacing effect means that

distributed study yields better retention than cramming.

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Memory for skills is called

implicit memory.

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The process of getting information out of memory storage is called

retrieval.

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Information is maintained in short-term memory only briefly unless it is

rehearsed.

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In a study on context cues, people learned words while on land or when they were underwater. In a later test of recall, those with the best retention had

learned the words and been tested on them in the same context.

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Studies demonstrate that learning causes permanent neural changes in the ________ of animals' neurons.

synapses

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Which area of the brain is most important in the processing of implicit memories?

cerebellum

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Long-term potentiation refers to

the increased efficiency of synaptic transmission between certain neurons following learning.

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Research on memory construction reveals that memories

reflect a person's biases and assumptions.

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The eerie feeling of having been somewhere before is an example of

déjà vu.

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Hypnotically “refreshed” memories may prove inaccurate—especially if the hypnotist asks leading questions—because of

memory construction.

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Which of the following best describes the typical forgetting curve?

a rapid initial decline in retention becoming stable thereafter

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Anterograde amnesia is the inability to

form new memories.

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Repression is an example of

motivated forgetting.

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Studies by Loftus and Palmer, in which people were quizzed about a film of an accident, indicate that

people's recall may easily be affected by misleading information.

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Which of the following was not recommended as a strategy for improving memory?

speed reading

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Amnesia patients typically experience disruption of

explicit memories.

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Memory researchers are suspicious of long-repressed memories of traumatic events that are “recovered” with the aid of drugs or hypnosis because

such experiences usually are vividly remembered.such memories are unreliable and easily influenced by misinformation.memories of events happening before about age 3 are especially unreliable.

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The misinformation effect provides evidence that memory

may be reconstructed during recall according to how questions are framed.

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The text defines cognition as

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating information.

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A mental grouping of similar things, events, or people is called a(n)

concept.

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When forming a concept, people often develop a best example, or ________, of a category.

prototype

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Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to

cling to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

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Thoughts and feelings that are automatic, effortless, immediate, and unreasoned are examples of

intuition.

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A common problem in everyday reasoning is our tendency to

accept as logical those conclusions that agree with our own opinions.

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Availability is an example of a(n)

heuristic.

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The basic units of cognition are

concepts.

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If you want to be absolutely certain that you will find the solution to a problem you know is solvable, you should use

an algorithm.

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The existence of ________ reinforces the generally accepted notion that intelligence is a multidimensional quality.

savant syndrome

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The bell-shaped distribution of intelligence scores in the general population is called a

normal curve.

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Which of the following is most likely to decrease with age?

speed of processing

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The basic mental abilities that go into learning and understanding any subject have been classified as

fluid intelligence.

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Some psychologists contend that intelligence consists of fluid intelligence, which ________ during adulthood, and crystallized intelligence, which ________.

declines; increases

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The test created by Alfred Binet was designed specifically to

predict school performance in children.

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If a test designed to indicate which applicants are likely to perform the best on the job fails to do so, the test has

low predictive validity.

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The accumulation of knowledge that comes about with education and experience has been classified as

crystallized intelligence.

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Most experts view intelligence as a person's

ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

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In recent years, researchers are more likely than before to consider intelligence as

made up of several abilities.

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Studies of adopted children and their biological and adoptive families demonstrate that with age, genetic influences on intelligence

become more apparent.

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Most psychologists believe that racial gaps in test scores

are in large measure caused by environmental factors.

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First-time parents Geena and Brad want to give their baby's intellectual abilities a jump-start by providing a super enriched learning environment. Experts would suggest that the new parents should

relax, since there is no surefire environmental recipe for giving a child a superior intellect.

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Which of the following provides the strongest evidence of the role of heredity in determining intelligence?

The IQ scores of identical twins raised separately are more similar than those of fraternal twins raised together.

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Reported racial gaps in average intelligence scores are most likely attributable to

environmental factors.

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To say that the heritability of a trait is approximately 50 percent means

that of the variation in the trait within a group of people, 50 percent can be attributed to heredity.

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Which of the following provides the strongest evidence of environment's role in intelligence?

Children moved from a deprived environment into an intellectually enriched one show gains in intellectual development.

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From an evolutionary perspective, men's greater edge in ________ contributed to their survival

spatial abilities

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Motivation is best understood as a state that

energizes and directs behavior.

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Which of the following is a difference between a drive and a need?

Needs are physiological states; drives are psychological states.

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Few human behaviors are rigidly patterned enough to qualify as

instincts.

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When asked what makes life meaningful, most people first mention

satisfying relationships.

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Homeostasis refers to

the tendency to maintain a steady internal state.

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According to Maslow's theory

the most basic motives are based on physiological needs.needs are satisfied in a specified order.the highest motives relate to self-transcendence.

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The text suggests that a neophobia for unfamiliar tastes

protected our ancestors from potentially toxic substances.

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In their study of men on a semistarvation diet, researchers found that

the men became obsessed with food.

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Research on genetic influences on obesity reveals that

the body weights of adoptees correlate with that of their biological parents.

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Research on obesity indicates that

when weight drops below the set point, hunger increases.

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The tendency to overeat when food is plentiful

emerged in our prehistoric ancestors as an adaptive response to periods when food was scarce.

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Unit bias refers to the research finding that people tend to

eat more when a portion of food is supersized.

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Which of the following is NOT necessarily a reason that obese people have trouble losing weight?

Obese people tend to lack willpower.

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Which division of the nervous system is especially involved in bringing about emotional arousal?

sympathetic nervous system

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Current estimates are that an innocent person taking a polygraph test would have been declared guilty approximately ________ of the time.

one-third

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In the Schachter-Singer experiment, which college men reported feeling an emotional change in the presence of the experimenter's highly emotional confederate?

those receiving epinephrine but not expecting to feel physical arousal

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Emotions consist of which of the following components?

physiological reactions.behavioral expressions.conscious feelings

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Law enforcement officials sometimes use a lie detector to assess a suspect's responses to details of the crime believed to be known only to the perpetrator. This is known as the

guilty knowledge test.

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Which of the following most accurately describes emotional arousal?

Emotions prepare the body to fight or flee.

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The polygraph measures

physiological indexes of arousal.

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In an emergency situation, emotional arousal will result in

increased rate of respiration.increased blood sugar.a slowing of digestion.

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Many psychologists are opposed to the use of lie detectors because

polygraphs cannot distinguish the various possible causes of arousal.

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Research on nonverbal communication has revealed that

facial expressions tend to be the same the world over, while gestures vary from culture to culture.

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Which of the following is true regarding gestures and facial expressions?

Facial expressions are universal; gestures, culture-specific.

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With regard to emotions, Darwin believed that

the expression of emotions helped our ancestors to survive. all humans express basic emotions using similar facial expressions. human facial expressions of emotion retain elements of animals' emotional displays.

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