The Nature of Probability and Statistics
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| Statistics | The science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from data.
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| Variable | A characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.
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| Descriptive statistics | Consists of the collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data.
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| Inferential statistics | Consists of generalizing from samples to populations, performing estimations and hypothesis tests, determining relationships among variables, and making predictions.
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| Probability | The chance of an event occurring.
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| Population | Consists of all subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied.
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| Sample | A group of subjects selected from a population.
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| Hypothesis testing | A decision-making process for evaluating claims about population, based on information obtained from samples.
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| Qualitative variables | Variables that can be placed into distinct categories, according to some characteristic or attribute.
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| Quantitative variables | Numerical and can be ranked.
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| Discrete variables | Values that can be counted.
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| Continuous variables | Assume an infinite number of values between any two specific values. They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and decimals.
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| Nominal level of measurement | Classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonoverlapping) categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
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| Ordinal level of measurement | Classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
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| Interval level of measurement | Ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.
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| Ratio level of measurement | Possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement and there exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different members of the population.
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| Random Samples | Selected by using chance methods or random numbers.
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| Systematic samples | By numbering each subject of the population and then selecting every kth subject.
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| Stratified samples | Divided the population into groups (called strata) according to some characteristic that is important to the study, then sampling from each group.
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| Cluster samples | Population is divided into groups.
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| Convenience sample | Researchers use subjects that are convenient.
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| Observational study | The researcher merely observes what is happening or what has happened in the past and tries to draw conclusions based on these observations.
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| Experimental study | The researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the manipulation influences other variables.
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| Independent variable | An experimental study is the one that is being manipulated by the researcher.
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| Explanatory variable | The independent variable is also called this.
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| Dependent variable | The resultant variable.
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| Outcome variable | Also called the dependent variable.
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| Confounding variable | One that influences the dependent or the outcome variable but was not separated from the independent variable.
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| Treatment group | The group that received the special instruction.
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| Control group | Not the treatment group.
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| Quasi-experimental study | Intact groups are used.
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| Data | The values (measurements or observations0 that the variables can assume.
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| Data set | A collection of data values.
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| Data value (datum) | Each value in the data set.
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