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BIOLOGY REGENTS 2025

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Created by: markoii

Question	Answer
DNA	the blueprint of life. It carries the genetic instructions that determine the structure and function of all living things
Proteins	essential molecules in our bodies that perform a wide range of functions necessary for life
Structure of DNA	composed of two strands that form a double helix. The strands are made up of nucleotides, which include a sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine)
Transcription	First step. The DNA double helix unwinds, and an enzyme called RNA polymerase reads one DNA strand and creates a complementary strand of mRNA
Translation	The mRNA leaves the nucleus and is read by a ribosome. tRNA brings the correct amino acids to match each codon, and a protein is built
Base Pairing Rule	Adenine pairs with Thymine, Cytosine pairs with Guanine
Nitrogenous Bases	Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)
RNA Base Difference	RNA uses Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T)
Codon	A sequence of three mRNA bases that codes for one amino acid
mRNA	Messenger RNA, made from DNA during transcription; carries the genetic message to the ribosome
tRNA	Transfer RNA, brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation
Ribosome	The cell's protein-making factory, where translation occurs
Protein Synthesis	The overall process of transcription and translation, by which proteins are made from genetic instructions
Amino Acids	Building blocks of proteins, linked together in the order specified by mRNA
Enzymes	Proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions
Structural Proteins	Proteins that provide support and shape to cells and tissues (e.g., collagen)
Cell Receptors	Proteins on the cell surface that receive chemical signals and help the cell respond to its environment
Gene	A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein
Nucleotide	Basic unit of DNA made of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base
RNA Polymerase	The enzyme that builds mRNA during transcription
Why Protein Shape Matters	The shape of a protein determines its function; shape depends on the amino acid sequence
How DNA Determines Traits	DNA controls the sequence of amino acids in proteins, which influence structure and function in cells and traits in organisms
Where Transcription Occurs	In the nucleus
Where Translation Occurs	In the cytoplasm at a ribosome
Genetic Code	The sequence of DNA bases that determines the amino acid sequence in proteins
DNA to Trait Pathway	DNA → mRNA (transcription) → amino acid chain (translation) → folded protein → trait
Effect of DNA Mutation	A change in DNA may change the protein made, possibly altering structure or function
Hierarchical Organization	The levels of structure in multicellular organisms: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems
Cells	The basic unit of life. Different types perform specific functions like movement or communication
Tissues	Groups of similar cells working together to perform a particular function, like muscle or epithelial tissue
Organs	Structures made of multiple tissues working together to perform specific functions (e.g., the heart)
Organ Systems	Groups of organs that work together to carry out complex body functions (e.g., circulatory system)
Digestive System Function	Breaks down food into nutrients for the body to absorb and use
Circulatory System Function	Transports nutrients, oxygen, water, and other substances to cells and tissues
Immune System Function	Detects and responds to pathogens to protect the body from disease
Nervous System Function	Allows the body to sense and respond to environmental changes (stimuli)
Muscle Cells	Specialized cells that contract to allow movement
Nerve Cells	Specialized cells that send electrical signals through the body
Epithelial Tissue	Tissue that covers body surfaces and lines organs and cavities
Muscle Tissue	Tissue that enables movement by contracting and relaxing
Heart	An organ composed of multiple tissues that work together to pump blood
Multicellular Organism	An organism made up of many specialized cells and systems working together
Homeostasis	The maintenance of a stable internal environment within an organism despite external changes
Feedback Mechanisms	Processes that respond to internal or external changes to help maintain homeostasis
Negative Feedback	A mechanism that counteracts changes to bring the system back to normal (e.g., sweating to cool down)
Positive Feedback	A mechanism that amplifies changes (e.g., hormone release during childbirth to increase contractions)
Temperature Regulation	Example of negative feedback: body cools itself through sweating when temperature rises
Heart Rate and Exercise	Heart rate increases during exercise to supply more oxygen, helping maintain stable oxygen levels
Stomate Response	Plant stomates open or close based on moisture and temperature to balance water and gas exchange
Root Growth and Water	Plant roots grow toward areas with more water to maintain hydration and support survival
Internal Conditions Maintained	Includes temperature, pH, oxygen levels, and nutrient concentrations
Investigation of Feedback	Can include measuring changes in heart rate, stomate opening, or root growth in different conditions
Photosynthesis	The process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen
Purpose of Photosynthesis	Transforms light energy into stored chemical energy in the form of glucose
Where Photosynthesis Occurs	In the chloroplasts of plant cells
Inputs of Photosynthesis	Light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O)
Outputs of Photosynthesis	Glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2)
Energy Transformation in Photosynthesis	Light energy is captured by chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy stored in glucose
Chlorophyll	The green pigment in chloroplasts that captures light energy
Photosynthesis Chemical Equation	6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Use of Glucose	Used by plants for growth, reproduction, and cellular energy
Byproduct of Photosynthesis	Oxygen (O2), released into the atmosphere
Carbon-Based Molecules	Molecules essential for life that are built around carbon; include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Elements in Sugar Molecules	Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Building Blocks of Life	Simple molecules like sugars combine with nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus to form complex molecules
Amino Acids	Formed by combining carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur; building blocks of proteins
Proteins	Large, complex molecules made of amino acids that perform many functions in organisms
Lipids	Fats and oils formed from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; used for energy storage and cell structure
Nucleic Acids	DNA and RNA, formed from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
Formation of Complex Molecules	Chemical reactions rearrange elements from simple molecules to build lipids, proteins, starches, and nucleic acids
Importance of Chemical Reactions	Allow the transformation of basic elements into the molecules necessary for life
Use of Models and Simulations	Helps scientists understand and explain how complex molecules form from simpler ones
Aerobic Cellular Respiration	A process where cells break down glucose using oxygen to release energy
Inputs of Aerobic Respiration	Glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2)
Outputs of Aerobic Respiration	Carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and ATP (energy)
Purpose of Aerobic Respiration	To release energy from food and store it in ATP for cellular use
ATP	Adenosine triphosphate; the energy-carrying molecule used by cells
Energy Transfer in Respiration	Bonds in glucose and oxygen are broken; new bonds form in CO2 and H2O, releasing energy
Chemical Bonds in Respiration	Breaking food molecule bonds and forming new bonds results in energy release
Use of Oxygen	Oxygen is required to efficiently break down glucose and extract energy
Role of Models in Respiration	Help visualize chemical reactions, energy flow, and bond changes during respiration
Location of Respiration	Occurs primarily in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells
Cycling of Matter	The continuous movement of elements like carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen between biotic and abiotic parts of an ecosystem
Flow of Energy	Energy enters ecosystems through sunlight, moves through organisms via food chains, and exits as heat
Photosynthesis in Ecosystems	Captures sunlight to convert CO2 and water into glucose and oxygen, introducing energy into the food chain
Aerobic Respiration in Ecosystems	Breaks down glucose with oxygen to release energy, returning CO2 and water to the environment
Anaerobic Respiration	Energy-releasing process without oxygen; less efficient and produces byproducts like lactic acid or ethanol
Matter vs. Energy in Ecosystems	Matter is recycled; energy flows in one direction and is not recycled
Carbon Cycle	Carbon moves through plants, animals, the atmosphere, and soil in forms like CO2 and organic compounds
Role of Decomposers	Break down dead organisms, returning nutrients like nitrogen and carbon to the soil and atmosphere
Food Chain Energy Flow	Energy is passed from producers to consumers to decomposers, with energy lost as heat at each level
Sunlight’s Role in Ecosystems	Primary energy source that powers photosynthesis and drives the entire ecosystem’s energy flow
Cycling of Matter	Matter is recycled in ecosystems as elements like carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen move through living and nonliving components
Flow of Energy	Energy flows one way through ecosystems, entering as sunlight and leaving as heat; it is not recycled
Energy Pyramids	Graphical models that show how energy decreases at each trophic level from producers to top consumers
Primary Producers	Organisms like plants that capture sunlight and form the base of the energy pyramid
Trophic Levels	Levels in a food chain or energy pyramid, including producers, primary consumers, and higher-level consumers
Energy Transfer Efficiency	Only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next; the rest is lost as heat
Conservation of Matter	Matter is not created or destroyed in ecosystems; it cycles through various forms and organisms
Conservation of Energy	Energy is conserved but transformed; it changes form (e.g., chemical to heat) as it flows through the ecosystem
Carbon in Ecosystems	Carbon cycles through photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and consumption of organisms
Mathematical Models in Ecology	Used to represent and analyze how matter and energy move through ecosystems, such as in energy pyramids
The Carbon Cycle	The continuous movement of carbon among the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere
Carbon in the Biosphere	Carbon is stored in living organisms and released through processes like respiration and decomposition
Carbon in the Atmosphere	Carbon exists as carbon dioxide (CO2), which is absorbed and released through various processes
Carbon in the Hydrosphere	Carbon dissolves in bodies of water and is exchanged with the atmosphere and aquatic life
Carbon in the Geosphere	Carbon is stored in rocks and fossil fuels and released through geological processes and combustion
Photosynthesis and Carbon	Plants take in CO2 and convert it into glucose, removing carbon from the atmosphere
Respiration and Carbon	Organisms release CO2 back into the atmosphere by breaking down glucose for energy
Decomposition and Carbon	Decomposers break down dead organisms, releasing carbon into the atmosphere or soil
Combustion and Carbon	Burning of fossil fuels or organic matter releases carbon back into the atmosphere as CO2
Human Impact on Carbon Cycle	Activities like burning fossil fuels increase atmospheric CO2 and affect climate balance
Carbon Storage	Carbon can be stored for long periods in the geosphere (fossil fuels, rocks) or short-term in living organisms
Carbon Cycle Models	Visual tools that show how carbon moves through Earth’s systems and the processes involved
Carrying Capacity	The maximum number of individuals of a species that an ecosystem can support sustainably over time
Biotic Factors	Living components of an ecosystem that affect carrying capacity, such as predators, prey, competitors, and symbiotic relationships
Abiotic Factors	Non-living components like climate, water availability, soil quality, and temperature that influence carrying capacity
Example of Biotic Factor Impact	Increase in predator populations can decrease carrying capacity for prey species
Example of Abiotic Factor Impact	Drought reduces water availability, lowering carrying capacity for species dependent on water
Interdependence of Factors	Changes in abiotic factors (e.g., climate) can affect biotic factors (e.g., food availability) and impact carrying capacity
Mathematical Models	Graphs, charts, and histograms used to analyze how biotic and abiotic factors influence population changes over time
Computational Models	Simulations and computer models that predict ecosystem responses to different environmental conditions
Purpose of Models	To help scientists explain and predict changes in carrying capacity under varying conditions
Carrying Capacity Variation	Carrying capacity can change at different scales, depending on local or broader ecosystem conditions
Biodiversity	The variety of life in an ecosystem, including species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity
Factors Affecting Biodiversity	Habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, invasive species, and overexploitation
Population Dynamics	Changes in population size and composition influenced by birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration
Mathematical Representations	Graphs, charts, and data analysis tools used to support and revise explanations about biodiversity and populations
Analyzing Trends	Using data trends (like population size over time) to assess ecosystem health and impacts on biodiversity
Graphical Comparisons	Visualizing relationships between variables (e.g., pollution levels vs. species diversity) to understand ecosystem changes
Importance of Biodiversity	High biodiversity generally indicates a healthy and resilient ecosystem
Using Data to Predict	Mathematical models help predict future changes in populations and biodiversity based on observed data
Impacts of Pollution on Biodiversity	Pollution often causes a decline in species diversity and disrupts population dynamics
Invasive Species Impact	Non-native species can outcompete natives and reduce biodiversity
Ecosystem Stability	The ability of an ecosystem to maintain relatively constant numbers and types of organisms despite minor disturbances
Complex Interactions	Interactions like predator-prey relationships, competition, and symbiosis that help maintain stable populations and biodiversity
Resilience	The capacity of an ecosystem to recover from small disturbances and return to its original state
Changes in Ecosystem Conditions	Alterations caused by natural events (e.g., floods, volcanic eruptions) or human activities (e.g., hunting, pollution)
Impact of Changes	Some changes allow ecosystems to adapt; others can cause ecosystems to transform into new ecosystems
Ecological Succession	The natural process of ecosystem change over time, including primary succession (starting from bare rock) and secondary succession (alteration of an existing ecosystem)
Evaluating Claims and Evidence	Assessing the validity, strength, and logic of scientific data and conclusions about ecosystem stability and change
New Ecosystem Formation	When changes are severe, the original ecosystem may be replaced by a different one with new species and interactions
Human Activities Impacting Environment	Urbanization, agriculture, industrialization, and transportation that cause habitat destruction, pollution, and invasive species spread
Urbanization Effects	Leads to habitat loss, ecosystem fragmentation, pollution, and decreased species diversity
Invasive Species	Non-native organisms that outcompete native species, reducing biodiversity; spread facilitated by human trade and travel
Solutions to Environmental Challenges	Technological innovations, legislation, policies, and conservation practices to reduce human impact
Designing Solutions	Involves understanding problems, brainstorming, and creating models or simulations to predict outcomes and sustainability
Evaluating Solutions	Monitoring environmental indicators and biodiversity to assess effectiveness of solutions
Refining Solutions	Adjusting or improving solutions based on evaluation results and changing environmental conditions
Group behavior vs. individual behavior	Group behavior involves coordinated actions by multiple individuals for common goals like safety or resource use; individual behavior is carried out alone to meet personal needs
Advantages of group behavior	Group behaviors increase survival and reproduction by providing protection from predators, efficient resource use, and improved reproduction
Protection from predators	Group behaviors such as schooling or flocking confuse predators and reduce the chance of any one individual being caught
Efficient resource use	Cooperative hunting or foraging in groups helps capture prey or gather food more effectively than individuals alone
Improved reproduction	Migrating or breeding in groups improves chances of finding better breeding grounds and higher offspring survival rates
Evidence: flocking	Birds flying in flocks benefit from reduced predation risk and increased foraging efficiency
Evidence: schooling	Fish schooling reduces predation by confusing predators through coordinated movement
Evidence: herding	Herd animals like elephants use group formation to protect vulnerable members from predators
Evidence: cooperative hunting	Predators like lions hunt in groups to take down larger prey more successfully
Evidence: migrating	Group migration helps species navigate collectively and share environmental cues, aiding survival and reproduction
Developing arguments based on evidence	Distinguish group vs. individual behavior, identify supporting data, and construct logical claims on group behavior benefits
Mitosis	Mitosis is the process where a single cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells, essential for growth, repair, and replacement of cells
Main stages of mitosis	Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase are the main stages of mitosis (details not covered here)
Cell differentiation	After mitosis, cells become specialized into different types like muscle, nerve, or blood cells, guided by gene expression and environmental signals
Abnormal cell division	Uncontrolled cell division can cause cancer, where tumors form and may invade other tissues
Stem cells	Undifferentiated cells that can develop into various cell types, important for growth, repair, and regeneration
Stem cell research	Studies stem cells’ ability to treat diseases and repair damaged tissues by directing differentiation
Modeling mitosis and differentiation	Models like diagrams and simulations illustrate how cells divide and specialize, aiding understanding of these processes
DNA	DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the hereditary material in all living organisms that contains genetic instructions for growth, development, and reproduction
Chromosomes	Chromosomes are long structures made of DNA and proteins; humans have 23 pairs, with one set from each parent containing many genes
Coding regions	Coding regions are DNA sequences that contain instructions for making proteins responsible for trait expression
Non-coding regions	Non-coding regions do not code for proteins but regulate gene expression, provide chromosome structure, and maintain genome stability
Inheritance of traits	Traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes on chromosomes; combinations of alleles determine traits
How do coding regions contribute to traits?	Coding regions direct the synthesis of proteins that result in the expression of specific traits
What is the role of non-coding regions?	They regulate gene expression, support chromosome structure, and maintain genome stability
How are traits passed through chromosomes?	Genes on chromosomes are inherited from parents, carrying the genetic information for traits
Why distinguish coding from non-coding regions?	Because coding regions make proteins while non-coding regions control gene activity and chromosome function
New genetic combinations through meiosis	Meiosis produces gametes with new gene combinations through crossing over and independent assortment, creating genetic diversity
Errors during DNA replication	Mistakes during DNA copying can cause mutations passed to offspring if they occur in gametes, adding genetic variation
Mutations caused by environmental factors	Radiation, chemicals, and viruses can cause DNA mutations that may be inherited if they occur in germ cells
Genetic engineering	Biotechnological methods modify DNA by adding, removing, or altering genes, creating inheritable genetic variations not found naturally
How do new genetic combinations arise in meiosis?	Through crossing over and independent assortment, genes are shuffled to create unique offspring genetic profiles
What role do replication errors play in genetic variation?	Replication errors can cause mutations that introduce new inheritable genetic variations
How can environmental factors cause genetic variation?	They induce mutations in DNA, which may be passed to offspring if occurring in germ cells
What is genetic engineering’s impact on genetic variation?	It artificially introduces new genetic traits that can be inherited by future generations
How is evidence used to defend claims about genetic variation?	Experimental data, genetic studies, and observed traits support explanations of how variation occurs
Statistical analysis of traits	Uses averages, variances, and standard deviations to summarize how traits are distributed and identify patterns in a population
Probability of trait expression	Predicts likelihood of traits appearing in offspring using genetic inheritance patterns like Punnett squares
Genetic factors in trait variation	Alleles inherited from parents determine traits; probability describes how allele combinations cause variation
Environmental factors and traits	Environmental conditions influence trait expression and interact with genetic factors affecting distribution
Describing trait distribution	Mathematical models and visual tools like histograms and bar graphs show frequency and range of traits in a population
How does statistics help understand traits in a population?	It summarizes data on trait distribution and reveals patterns using measures like averages and variance
What role does probability play in genetics?	It predicts the chance of dominant or recessive traits appearing in offspring based on inheritance
How do genetic factors contribute to trait variation?	Different combinations of inherited alleles create genetic diversity in traits
How do environmental factors affect trait expression?	They modify how genetic traits are expressed and impact their distribution in a population
What tools describe trait distribution visually?	Histograms and bar graphs represent the frequency and range of traits observed in populations
Structures of male reproductive system	Includes testes that produce sperm and penis that delivers sperm into female reproductive tract
Structures of female reproductive system	Includes ovaries that produce eggs and uterus where the embryo develops
Role of endocrine system in reproduction	Regulates reproductive hormones that influence sexual development and function
Role of circulatory system in reproduction	Supplies blood to reproductive organs, supporting their function
Role of nervous system in reproduction	Involved in sexual arousal and reproductive behaviors
What happens after fertilization?	The fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes stages to become an embryo and then a fetus
Key stages of embryonic development	Include implantation in the uterus and early development of organs and body systems
How do environmental factors affect development?	Nutrition, toxins, and health impact fetal growth and development
Why is maternal nutrition important?	It supports healthy fetal growth and reduces risk of developmental problems
How can exposure to toxins influence development?	It can cause developmental issues or birth defects
What is the overall purpose of human reproduction and development?	To ensure the continuity of life by creating and developing new individuals
DNA sequence similarities	Similarity in DNA sequences among species indicates common ancestry; closely related species have more similar DNA
Comparative anatomy	Homologous structures in different species show shared ancestry despite different functions
Example of homologous structures	Forelimbs of humans, whales, and birds have similar bone structures due to common descent
Embryological development	Many species exhibit similar early developmental stages, supporting common ancestry
Fossil record	Fossils show historical changes in species and transitional forms illustrating evolution
What does the fossil record support?	Gradual evolutionary change and emergence of new species over time
Biogeography	Geographic distribution of species supports evolution through continental drift and landmass movement
How does biogeography support evolution?	Similar species found in different regions reflect historical movement of continents and species evolution
Potential for Population Growth	Species can reproduce and increase in number, but not all offspring survive due to environmental limits
Why is population growth important for evolution?	It creates opportunities for natural selection to act on variation within the population
Heritable Genetic Variation	Mutations and sexual reproduction produce genetic differences that can be inherited
How do mutations and sexual reproduction contribute to variation?	Mutations introduce new traits; sexual reproduction shuffles genes creating diverse trait combinations
Competition for Limited Resources	Organisms compete for food, water, and shelter, influencing survival and reproduction success
What effect does competition have on evolution?	It favors individuals with traits better suited to obtain limited resources
Natural Selection and Adaptation	Better-adapted organisms are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on advantageous traits
How does natural selection drive evolution?	Traits that improve survival/reproduction become more common over generations, causing evolutionary change
What is natural selection?	Natural selection is the process where individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, causing those traits to become more common in the population over time.
What is adaptation in a population?	Adaptation is the process by which a population becomes better suited to its environment through the accumulation of advantageous traits over generations.
What are biotic factors in natural selection?	Biotic factors are interactions with other organisms such as competition, predation, and symbiosis that can influence which traits are advantageous.
What are abiotic factors in natural selection?	Abiotic factors are non-living environmental elements like temperature, climate, acidity, light, and geographic barriers that affect which traits provide survival advantages.
How does natural selection change gene frequencies?	Natural selection changes gene frequencies by increasing the frequency of alleles that contribute to advantageous traits and decreasing those linked to less favorable traits.
What evidence supports adaptation through natural selection?	Evidence includes observations of changes in trait distributions, survival rates, reproductive success related to environmental factors, and statistical and graphical analyses illustrating these changes.
What are the four Earth spheres involved in the carbon cycle?	The hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.
What does a quantitative model of the carbon cycle describe?	It describes the cycling of carbon among the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere, including concentrations and transfer rates.
What is the role of plants in the carbon cycle?	Plants capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
How does human activity affect the carbon cycle?	Human activities increase carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, affecting climate.
What is important to identify in carbon cycling models?	The relative amounts and rates of carbon transfer between Earth’s spheres and conservation of matter during cycling.
What limitation exists in carbon cycle models?	Models cannot account for all carbon present in Earth's systems.
What caused gradual atmospheric changes historically?	Plants and other organisms capturing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.
How does increased atmospheric CO2 affect climate?	It leads to changes in climate, including global warming.
What is meant by the simultaneous coevolution of Earth's systems and life on Earth?	It refers to the dynamic interactions where Earth’s systems and life evolve together, each influencing and altering the other continuously.
What was Earth’s atmosphere like shortly after its formation?	It had a different composition, lacking free oxygen and dominated by gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
What is the current composition of Earth's atmosphere?	It contains significant free oxygen due to photosynthetic organisms, along with nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other gases.
What evidence supports the emergence of photosynthetic organisms?	The presence of iron oxide formations (banded iron formations) caused by oxygen produced from photosynthesis.
How did free oxygen affect evolution and Earth’s systems?	Free oxygen increased weathering rates, led to iron oxide deposits, and allowed for the evolution of animal life dependent on oxygen.
How does the biosphere affect other Earth systems? Give examples.	Photosynthetic life altered the atmosphere; microbial life increased soil formation enabling land plants; coral evolution created reefs changing erosion and habitats.
What are causal links and feedback mechanisms between biosphere changes and Earth system changes?	Changes in life forms alter atmospheric gases, which affect geological processes, which in turn influence life evolution—a continuous feedback loop.
How do plants and other organisms contribute to atmospheric changes?	They capture carbon dioxide and release oxygen, gradually transforming the atmosphere.
Why is the coevolution of Earth’s surface and life described as dynamic and delicate?	Because the biosphere and Earth systems continuously influence each other through complex feedbacks that shape both life and the planet’s surface.