| Flap 1 |
Flap 2 |
| Merocrine Secretion | Membrane-bound secretory granules in cytoplasm, released via exocytosis from apical cell surface, most common, salivary glands, pancreas |
| Holocrine Secretion | Cells accumulate secretions, die, release contents, high mitotic rate, sebaceous glands |
| Apocrine Secretions | Secretions accumulate in apical cytoplasm, released by pinching off portion of apical region of cell, loss of some cytoplasm and cell membrane, lipid secretion of mammary gland |
| Serous Acinus Secretion | Thin watery with proteins, Pyramidal cells with basal nuclei, Secretory granules in apical cytoplasm, small central lumen |
| Mucous Acinus Secretion | More viscous, high carbs, pyramidal cell with basal nuclei, clear cytoplasm, large central lumen |
| Mixed Acinus Secretion | Mucous acinus with serous demilune, intracellular channels deliver serous secretions to lumen |
| Alpha | Cis |
| H2O | 75 to 85 percent of cell weight, polar bond angles, H bonds between moles, solvent, inert, hydrophilic/phobic, amphipathic |
| Carbon | 4 bonds (covalent), OCHN, single, double, triple bonds, stable high energy required, 4 diff grps - asymmetric C - chiral center |
| Hydrophobic interactions | Interior of moles sequestered from H2O, between nonpolar moles (lipids) |
| van der Waals forces? Examples? | weaker than H bonds, macromolecules where double covalent bonds exist (aromatic rings of amino acids), stacked bases in DNA |
| Hydrogen bond? Examples? | Weaker than covalent/ionic, H and O in separate H2O moles, DNA, proteins (H and N or O), Planar, stables in large moles with H bonds, secondary protein structure |
| Ionic Bond? Examples? | Electronegative element removes e- from other atom, CL, NA, Soluble crystals formed |
| Nonpolar covalent bond | E-s shared equally |
| Polar covalent bond? Examples? | One atom has e- more than the other, O, N or H2O |
| Covalent bond | Shared pair of e-, polar or nonpolar |
| Trace elements | Fe, Zn, Mg, Co (I'M CoZi) |
| Macronutrients | C, H, O, P, N, S (CHOPNS) |
| Water % of cell | 75 to 85 |
| Sphingolipids | In membranes, based on sphingosine (amino alcohol), adds long chain FA to form ceramide, Amphipathic |
| Phospholipids | In membranes, Phosphate replaces one FA, Alcohol (sering, ethanolamine, choline, inositol) on phosphate, amphipathic, water-soluble |
| Triglycerides | True fats, glycerol and 3 fatty acids, saturated - all single, unsat - 1 or more double (shape changes), fats - sat, oils - unsat |
| Lipid Classes | Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, steroids, terpenes (isoprenoids) |
| Lipids | Hydrophobic, soluble in nonpolar (chloroform and ether), hydrocarbon chains with C and H, some amphipathic (phosphate or sugar groups) |
| Polypeptide Functions | Enzymes, Structural, Motor, Transport, Storage, Signal, Receptors, Regulate Gene Expression |
| Tertiary Structure | Long-distance interactions within polypeptide to form multimeric structure (4 subunits like hemoglobin) |
| Secondary Structure | Alpha - helix, Beta - pleated sheet, determined by H bonding |
| Respiration / Energy Generation | Cytoplasm - glycolysis (breakdown 6C glucose to 2 pyruvate (3C) and makes small amount of ATP), Mitochondrial Matrix - TCA Cycle (Pyruvate into acetyl CoA into TCA cycle into ATP, reduces e- attached to NADH+ and FADH2) |
| Respiration / Energy Generation con't. | Inner Membrane - ETS (Proteins transfer e- through ETS carriers to ATPsynthase into large amount of ATP (requires O2) |
| Golgi | Process and package of secreted proteins, integrals, lysosomals, glycosylation of glycoproteins, receives RER proteins via vesicles, process leave in vesicles for cell membrane |
| Lysosomes | Acid phosphatase (breakdown macros), take vacuole in to digest, cell recycling, more than 40 hydrolytic enzymes (lipases, nucleases, proteases, carbohydrases), active in acidic environment (protective mechanism so inactive in cytoplasm) |
| Mitochondrion | Double membrane, cristae - proteins of ETS (carrier proteins and ATPsynthase), circular DNA and ribosomes, matrix - enzymes of TCA cycle and beta-oxidation of fatty acids |
| Peroxisomes | microbodies, kidney and liver cells, contain catalase and peroxidase, generate and breakdown H2O2 into H2O and O2, breakdown (oxidize) long-chain fatty acides (increase to 22C) |
| Ribosomes | Protein synthesis, Ribosomal proteins and rRNA composition, Prokaryotic and eukaryotic, differ though, 2 subunites (Large and small), found in mitochondria, cytoplasm, attached to RER |
| Cytoskeleton | Give shape, cellular movement (internal - chromosomes in cell division, external - cilia and flagella), provide binding sites for organelles, control vesicular traffic, microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments |
| Microtubules | alpha and beta tubulin, generated at MTOC, cilia and flagella, positioning of organelles, movement of cells, movement of organelles, changes in cell shape (embryogenesis) |
| Microfilaments | Actin, g- (globular) actin, f- (filamentous) actin, muscle contraction, amoeboid movement of phagocytes, cytoplasmic streaming, cleavage furrow in cell division |
| Intermediate Filaments | Fibrous, more diverse than others (composition), differ in each cell type, mechanical strength, stable once synthesized |
| Protein production | nucleus transcribes mRNA, RER translates polypeptide into lumen, adds sugar residues, transports vesicles to Golgi, Golgi completes glycosylation if needed, transport/secretory vesicles carry protein to plasma membrane |
| ER | Rough - ribosomes, protein synthesis; Smooth - no ribosomes, lipids and steroid synthesis, drug detox, sequesters Ca ions in muscle cells |
| Membrane proteins | Amphipathic, integral (transmembrane), glucose; Extrinsic (peripheral) - cytoplasmic or extracellular; Glycoproteins - sugar residues outside cell, recognition sites, immunity;enzymes(protein/ATPsynthase), transport (glucose),receptors (hormones) |
| Nucleus | Holds genetic info, nuclear envelope, DNA, nucleolus, replicates DNA, transcribes DNA to mRNA for protein synthesis |
| Nuclear envelope | Double membrane (outer layer continuous with ER), lipid bilayer, nuclear pores (passage between nucleus and cytoplasm) |
| DNA | 2 complementary strands of nucelotides with H bonds between bases, chromatin - DNA with histone proteins (hetero - condensed, more histones, inactive; eu - pale, less histones, active), forms chromosomes |
| Nucleolus | Synthesis and organization of ribosomes |
| Plasma membrane | Controls passage in and out, barrier between internal and external environment, maintains ion and charge gradients, phospholipid bilayer (fluid mosaic model) |
| tRNA | transfers amino acids that match RNA template |
| Regulatory RNA | Gene formation |
| rRNA | makes ribosomes |
| mRNA | makes proteins |
| RNA | Adenine and Uracil, Cytosine and Guanine, single strand, mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, regulatory RNA |
| Uses of nucleic acids | storage - DNA, expression - RNA, utilizable chemical energy in cell |
| DNA | Adenine and Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine, double-strand |
| Nucleic Acids | Made of nucleotides |
| Purines | Larger than pyrimidines, Adenine or Guanine |
| Pyrimidines | Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine |
| Nucleic Acid Synthesis | Adjacents joined by phosphodiester bond (between phosphate and sugar), bond provides directionality (5 prime phosphate, 3 prime hydroxyl, always 5 to 3) |
| Adhesive junctions | Zonula adherens, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes |
| Zonula adherens | Cadherin (Ca++ dependent protein) of adjacent cells bind, actin microfilaments in cortex anchor cadherin |
| Desmosomes | Similar to zonula adherens, disc-shaped, cytoplasmic intermediate filaments anchor proteins |
| Hemidesmosomes | Integrins, not cadherins, attached to ECM |
| Gap junctions | Communications, passage of ions and small moles, connexons (6 subunits of connexin), cardiac and smooth muscle, allow multiple cells to act as a single unit |
| Disaccharides | 2 monosaccharides with glycosidic bond, sucrose (table sugar - glucose and fructose), lactose (galactose and glucose) |
| Stratified cuboidal epithelium | 2 layers of cuboidal cells, sweat gland ducts |
| Stratified columnar epithelium | 2 layers - upper is columnar, large duct of salivary gland, palpebral conjunctiva (inner lining of eyelid) |
| Transitional epithelium | Mutliple layers, superficial dome cells (rounded to flattened) based on distention, renal calyces to urethra |
| Glandular epithelium | Outgrowth of surface epithelium, exocrine - ducts on surface, endocrine - no ducts on surface |
| Unicellular Endocrine Glands | Enteroendocrine cells of digestive tract |
| Unicellular exocrine glands | Goblet cells of digestive and repiratory tracts |
| Multicellular exocrine glands | Simple (unbranched ducts) or compound (branched ducts), acinar or alveloar - round saclike, tubular 0 elongated, tubuloalveolar - mixed |
| Multicellular exocrine types | Simple tubular - crypts of Lieberkuhn (colon), simple coiled tubular - sweat glands, simple branched tubular - fundic glands of stomach, simple alveloar - none in humans, simple branched alveolar - sebaceous glands |
| Multicellular exocrine types con't. | Compound tubular - cardiac glands of stomach, compound alveolar - pancreas, compound tubuloalveolar - salivary glands |
| Cell Junctions - What are they? Functions? | Modifications of plasma membrane, provide anchoring of adjacent cells to each other, provide cytoplasmic continuity |
| Tight Junctions | Seal cell-lined compartments, fuse adjacent plasma membranes, prevent water-solubles from passing through ECM, protein strands fuse together, maintains polarity (proteins stay at apical or basal / lateral surface), disrupted by Ca concentration decreasing |
| Stratified squamous epithelium | Superficial squamous layer, keratinized (skin) - anucleate - waterproof barrier, nonkeratinized - living, nucelate, vocal cords, esophagus, vagina, oral cavity |
| Simple squamous epithelium | Cobblestones, alveoli, parietal layer (Bowman's capsule). thin loop of henle |
| Simple cuboidal epithelium | Central nucleus, thyroid follicles, proximal, distal, collecting kidney tubules, small salivary glands, germinal epithelium of ovary |
| Simple columnar epithelium | Elongated nucleus, basally located, papillary ducts of kidneys, intestinal and gall bladder lining, fallopian tubes |
| Pseudostratified epithelium | All cells rest on basal lamina, not all reach apical surface, different heights of nuclei, frequently ciliated, tracheal, brochial, bronchiole lining, epidydimal and urethral (male) lining |
| Characteristics of epithelial tissue | Avascular, contiguous, little extracellular matrix, polarized, undergo renewal, basal lamina (basement membrane) |
| Epithelial functions | Selectively permeable barrier, protection, secretion, absorption, transcellular transport, sensation |
| Mesoderm forms? | Endothelium of blood vessels, mesothelium of cavities, kidney tubules, reproductive lining |
| Nucleotides | Nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine), pentose sugar, phosphate |
| Endoderm forms? | Respiratory and digestive lining, digestive glands |
| Internal regulation | Cyclins, maturation promoting factor (MPF) |
| External regulation | Growth factors bind to specific receptors on cell surface, send signals to components |
| G0 | In cells that can exit cycle for varying lengths of time, cardiac and neurons permanently exit, hepatocytes about 1 year, entered from G1 |
| M | Mitosis, 1 to 2 hours |
| G2 | Gap 2 or post-synthetic, 3 to 6 hours, tubulin synthesis for microtubules, checkpoint for DNA repair |
| S | Synthetic phase, DNA synthesis, 6 to 8 hours, conservative replication maintains genetic integrity, centrioles required for mitotic spindle replicated |
| G1 | Variable in length, Gap 1 or pre-synthetic phase, cell growth, protein synthesis, checkpoint prior to S (favorable for division? DNA intact?) |
| Anaphase | Chromatids move to opposite poles |
| Metaphase | Chomosomes migrate to equatorial plate, separate into sister chromatids, chromatids attach to opposite centrosomes via microtubules |
| Prophase | Chromatin condenses - chromosomes visible, nuclear envelope breaks down, centrosomes (pair of centrioles) separate to opposite poles, microtubules connect centrioles to chromosomes |
| Karyokinesis | Nuclear division, PMAT |
| MPF | Maturation Promoting Factor, M-Cdk, Cyclin M plus kinase, rapid increase in concentration, triggers cell mitosis |
| Telophase | Nuclear envelope regenerated, chromosomes disperse |
| Cytokinesis | Cytoplasm division, band of actin filaments form at equatorial plate, band constriction separates cytoplasm, occurs during anaphase, completes in telophase |
| Apoptosis | Programmed cell death, embryonic development, normal reorganization of tissues, developeing hand and foot, adult tissue - balance cell division, removes cells that are damaged or ineffectivem nucleus condenses and breaks up, cell surface blebs,no inflam |
| Cyclins | Bind to specific kinases (Cdks - cyclin-dependent kinases) to regulate interphase, concentration increases during interphase |
| What are tissues? | Group of cells that carry out similar functions, includes cells and ECM |
| Tissue types? | Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous |
| Types of epithelial tissue | Surface, glandular |
| Surface epithelium | Arranged in cell sheets, covers surfaces, lines cavities |
| Glandular epithelium | Skin, mouth lining, nose, anus |
| Microvilli | About 1 micrometer long, covered with glycocalys (sugar linked to lipids and proteins), brush (striated) border, apical surfaces of absorptive cells, core of actin arranged longitudinally, not motile |
| Stereocilia | Long length (misnamed), long branched microvilli, increase surface area |
| Cilia/flagella | About 5 to 10 micrometers or longer, axoneme, 9 doublets of MT around 2 single MT (9 +2), axonemal dynein - motor, ATP required, supportive proteins, basal body (cyto base of axoneme) 9 triplets, no central (9 +0) |
| Mitosis | Cell division |
| Interphase | All other cell events, variable in length |
| Phases of cell cycle | G1, S, G2, M, G0 |
| Primary Structure | Amino acid sequence |
| Polypeptides | Chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds, specific order for each, translation (protein synthesis), monomeric, multimeric |
| Polar charged - #? Examples? | Basic (3) - Lysine, Acidic (2) - Aspartame, Glutamine |
| Polar Uncharged - #? Examples? | 6, hydrophilic, Cysteine |
| Beta | Trans |
| Nonpolar hydrophobic - #? Examples? | 9 - lack O or N in functional group, Leucine, Tryptophan |
| Amino Acids | 20 - peptide (covalent) bond between amine and carboxyl group, nonpolar hydrophobic, polar uncharged, polar charged, D- and L- forms |
| Protein structure | Amino acids, poly peptides |
| Principle of self-assembly | Inherent in macromolecules, proteins as translated on ribosome, onley need polypeptide for folding and configuration, assisted for larger more complex (more than 1 polypeptide), requires chaperone (not part of, transiently binds and prevents interaction) |
| Glycolipids | In membranes, carb replaces phosphate, amphipathic, outer surface of plasma membrane |
| Steroids | 3 6C rings and 1 5C ring, cholesterol (promotes fluidity), amphipathic (HO at 3C), membranes, source of androgens, estrogens, glucocorticoids (cortisol) and mineral corticoids (aldosterone) |
| Examples of monosaccharides | Aldosugars - terminal CO, Ketosugars (internal CO), Hexose (6C - glucose, straight or ring), Pentose (5C - Ribose or deoxyribose, nucleic acid component) |
| Monosaccharides | Monomers of simple sugars, glycosidic bonds |
| Structural polysaccharides | Cellulose - plants only |
| Storage polysaccharides | Starch - plants, glycogen - animals |
| Polysaccharides | Storage adn structure, mono- or di- |
| Terpenes | aka Isoprenoids, derived from isoprene (5C), synthesis of vitamin A, CoQ, carotenoid pigments |
| What occurs during polymerization? | Releases H2O (condensation), must have reactive H and OH (adds here), requires ATP and phosphate group, transfer RNA, directionality |
| Polymerization | Synthesis from smaller molecules |
| Made of? Proteins? Nucleic Acids? Lipids? Polysaccharide? | Amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids with glycerol, sugars |
