Social Psychology
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| social psychology | the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (pp. 13, 643)
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| attribution theory | the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition. (p. 644)
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| fundamental attribution error | the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. (p. 644)
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| attitude | feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. (p. 646)
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| central route persuasion | attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. (p. 646)
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| peripheral route persuasion | attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness. (p. 646)
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| foot-in-the-door phenomenon | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. (p. 647)
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| role | a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. (pp. 439, 647)
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| cognitive dissonance theory | the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. (p. 648)
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| conformity | adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. (p. 651)
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| normative social influence | influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. (p. 653)
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| informational social influence | influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality. (p. 653)
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| social facilitation | stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. (p. 657)
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| social loafing | the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. (p. 658)
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| deindividuation | the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. (p. 659)
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| group polarization | the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. (p. 659)
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| groupthink | the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. (p. 660)
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| culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (pp. 43, 661)
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| norm | an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior. (p. 662)
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| personal space | the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. (p. 662)
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| prejudice | an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. (p. 664)
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| stereotype | a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. (p. 664)
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| discrimination | (1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (2) unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (pp. 222, 664)
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| ingroup | “Us”—people with whom we share a common identity. (p. 668)
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| outgroup | “Them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup. (p. 668)
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| ingroup bias | the tendency to favor our own group. (p. 668)
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| scapegoat theory | the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. (p. 669)
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| other-race effect | the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias. (p. 669)
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| just-world phenomenon | the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. (p. 670)
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| aggression | physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. (pp. 436, 670)
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| frustration-aggression principle | the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression. (p. 672)
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| mere exposure effect | the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. (p. 678)
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| passionate love | an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. (p. 683)
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| companionate love | the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. (p. 684)
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| equity | a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. (p. 684)
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| self-disclosure | revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. (p. 684)
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| altruism | unselfish regard for the welfare of others. (p. 685)
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| bystander effect | the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. (p. 686)
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| social exchange theory | the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. (p. 687)
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| reciprocity norm | an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. (p. 687)
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| social-responsibility norm | an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them. (p. 687)
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| conflict | a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. (p. 688)
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| social trap | a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. (p. 688)
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| mirror-image perceptions | mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. (p. 689)
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| self-fulfilling prophecy | a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. (p. 689)
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| superordinate goals | shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. (p. 690)
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| GRIT | Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction—a strategy designed to decrease international tensions. (p. 692)
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