Physiology
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| What are the two views of life? | Mechanistic and vitalist
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| What does mechanistic mean? | It can be explained by physical and chemical processes
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| What does vitalist mean? | There is a vital force explaining the phenamona
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| How do cells communicate with each other? | Via chemical messengers that go to receptors on the target cell
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| What, then, tells the cell what to do? | Chemical events occuring as a result of the binding onto the receptor.
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| What are the three steps of cell recognition? | 1) reception, 2) transduction 3) Response
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| Where is the receptor located? | budding from the cytoplasm
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| Where does signal transduction occur? | In cytoplasm
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| What is homeostasis? | Stable conditions of internal environment
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| What is an example of homeostasis? | Maintaining internal temperature
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| What the two systems that help in homeostasis? | Negative and positive feedback
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| What is negative feedback? | A change in regulated variable causes a response to move the variable in the OPPOSITE direction
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| What does the stimulus lead to? | A decreased reaction
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| What is positive feedback? | Disturbance causes a chain of events to increase the perturbation
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| What does this stiumulus lead to? | An increase in reaction product
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| Which, negative or positive feedback, favors stability? | negative feedback
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| What is an example of positive feedback? | Blood clotting
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| What is an example of reflex? | Remove hand when something hot is touched
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| What are the components of a homeostatic system? | Reflexes, homeostatic responses, intercellular chemical messegers, eicosanoids
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| What is a reflex? | Unlearned biolgical control linking stmulus with response and mediated by a reflx arc
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| What is an example of a reflex? | Removing hand when something hot is touched
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| What is an acquired reflex? Give an example? | An act learned by repetition; an example would be what race car drivers do, gymnists...etc.
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| What are the components of a reflex arc? | Stimulus applied, receptor detects stimulus, afferent pathway (to brain), integration center receives signal, goes down efferently via a different pathway to get a certain response
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| What is the different pathway referred to in the reflex ac? | For example, it can go to skeletal muscles to make a movement or it can go to cardiac muscles to increase heardbeat
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| Note figures 1.3 & 1.5-1.6 | Note figures 1.3 & 1.5-1.6
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| What two important features of a homeostatic response must be noted? | 1) Initiated bya stimuli 2) There si a local vs. global response
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| Give an example of a local vs. global response | A small cut vs. shivering when it is cold out.
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| Note tables 1-2 and 1-3 | HOMEOSTASIS AND HOMEOSTATIC REFLEX
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| CHEMICAL MESSENGERS | CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
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| What are the four types of intercellular chemical messengers? | Neurotrasnmitters, hormones, paracrine agents, and autocrine agents
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| NOTE FIGURE 1-7 | NOTE FIGURE 1-7
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| EICOSANOIDS | EICOSANOIDS
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| How are eicosanoids formed? | 1. From polyunsaturated fat of arachidonic acid
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| Give an example of an eiconsanoid. | Prostaglandins
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| What are the effects of eicosanoids? | A variety of effects, including blood clotting, smooth muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, and reproductive function
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| NOTE FIGURE 5-12 | messenger of eiconsanoids description
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| What are some processes related to homeostasis? | Acclimatization, adaptation, biological rhythms, aging, and apoptosis,
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| ACCLIMATIZATION | ACCLIMATIZATION
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| What is acclimatization? Give an example | Improvement due to environment with no change in genetic endowment, like when people in texas who aren't in air conditioned places all the time typically sweat more and sooner on a hot day than people living in minnesota; texans are acclimatized to heat
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| BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS | BIO RHYTHMS
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| SEE figure 1-8 | see fig. 1-8
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| How often does the circardian rhythms cycle? | One in a day
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| What is said to be the pacemaker for the circardian rhythm? | The hypothalamus
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| Can rhythms change? Why | Yes, it is called entrainment, often the result of environmental cues
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| What is a phase shift? | Resetting of biological clocks as in jet lag when changing time zones
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| How do heart attacks and asthma relate to biological rhythms? | They tend to occur at specific times of day, like heart attacks occur in the morning, asthma at night
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| AGING | AGING
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| What are the effects of aging? | Loss of ability to maintain homeostasis, there are a decreased number of cells in body because less cells divide and more cells die
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| Is aging a disease? | No
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| What are possible causes of aging? | Senescence, cumulative damage to macromolecules
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| APOPTOSIS | APOPTOSIS
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| What is apoptosis? | Programmed cell death
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| When is apoptosis most important? | In embryonic development
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| Why is it important? | It destroys damaged cells in body
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| How is apoptosis trigerred? | Severe insult to a cell`
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| How does apoptosis work? | Cell membrane remains intact so that its contents are not dispersed
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| LECTURE 2 | CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE BODY
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| What are atoms? | Units of matter that form all chemical substances
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| What are the three components of an atom and where are they located? | Protons (nucleus), Neutrons (nucleus), and Electrons (in electron cloud)
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| What is the net charge of an atom?What is the net charge of an atom? | There is no net charge (0)
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| Which of the three components of an atom are usually equal? | protons and electrons
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| How many elements are need for normal physiological function? | 24
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| What makes up most of the elements in the human body? | Hydrogen (63), Oxygen (26), carbon (9), and nitrogen (1)
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| SEE TABLE 2-1 | SEE TABLE 2-1; VERY IMPORTANT
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| What are molecules? | Two or more atoms bonded together
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| What are the two types of bonds? | Covalent and ionic
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| What are covalent bonds? | Equal sharing bonds, due to mingling of electron clouds
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| What are ionic bonds? | Having one atom overtake the charge of the other; unequal sharing
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| What are ions? | Having gained or lost an electron
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| What are examples of cations? | Sodium, potasium, calcium and magnesium
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| What are exmaples of an anion? | Chloride, suphate, phosphate
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| What is a covalent non-polar bond? | Charge distributed equally in bonds
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| What are covalent polar bonds? | Unequally distributed charge, especially when you have N, O, S
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| What is an ionized group? | Result of a covalent polar bond
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| What can molecules be divided into? Which three categories? | Polar, nonpolar, and amphipathic
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| Which interaction would be most polar? | Most ionic
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| Which would be most non-polar? | Most covalent
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| Which would be amphipathic? | Both
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| What are hydrogen bonds? | When hydrogen interacts with nitrongen or oxygen
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| Our body is mostly composed of polar or non-polar substances? Explain. | Our body is mostly non-polar substances because otherwise, it would all dissolve into the water. We have to have stuff that isn't dissolved, like our lungs, blood..etc.
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| What is a micelle? | Clumps, the result of mixing polar and non-polar stuff
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| What is the structure of amphipathic molecules? | Like the phospholipid bilayer, they have polar heads they expose to water and hydrophobic, non-polar covalent tails they hide from the water
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| As the concentration of H+ gets larger, what happens to the solution? | The PH gets smaller, becoming acidic
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| What are organic molecules? | Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
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| CARBOHYDRATES | CARBOHYDRATES
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| What are carbohydrages? | Sugars and starch
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| What is the composition of carbs? | Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (water)
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| What is their function? | Provide energy for when we need it NOW
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| What percentage of our body weight is carbs? | Only one percent
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| What is an example of monosaccharide? (Polar or non-polar) | Glucose, which is polar
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| LIPIDS | LIPIDS
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| What are lipids? | Oils and fats
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| What elements are lipids made of? | Hydrogen, and carbon, linked by covalent bond
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| What percent of our body are they? | 40%
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| Can they dissolve in water? | NO!!! Immescible
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| What are the four subclasses of lipids? | Fatty acids, tricylglycerides, phospholipids, and sterioids
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| What are Fatty acids? | Long chains of carbon atoms
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| What are saturated fatty acids? | NO double bonds, animal fat
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| What are unsaturated fatty acids? | vegetable fat, double bonded
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| What are the majority of lipids in our body? | Triacyglycerides
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| How how phospholipids do we have in our body? | Not very much
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| what class of polarity do phospholipids fall under? | Amphipathic
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| STEROIDS | STERIOIDS
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| What do steroids look like? | Four interconnected rings of carbon atoms
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| What are examples of steroids? | Cholestrol, estrogen, progestrone, htestrostrone
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| PROTEINS | PROTEINS
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| What is the main function of proteins? | They tell the body what to do; get their energy from fats
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| What are proteins composed of? | A chain of amino acids
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| What are amino acids made of? | Contain a carboxyl group and amino group and side chain
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| Must side chains match the polarity of the rest of the amino acid? | No. It can be polar, non-polar, or ionized
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| What percentage of our body are proteins? | 50%
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| Are proteins big? | Yes, they're macromolecules
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| Explain the relationship between proteins and amino acids wrt ALL LIVING ORGANISMS | They all have the same number of amino acids
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| How are the amino acids in proteins linked together? | By peptide bonds
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| What structurally about proteins is essential to normal function? | Their folding
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| What will dictate protein folding? | (blank)
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| NUCLEIC ACIDS | Nucleic acids
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| What are nucleic acids responsible for? | Storage expression and trasnmission of genetic info
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| What is DNA? | Tells us what proteins to make
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| RNA is what? | Helps us MAKE the proteins; it decodes DNA's info into a sequence of amino acids to form a polypeptide chain
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| What makes up DNA and RNA? | Nucleotides
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| What are the three components of a nucleic acid? | Phosphate group, sugar (ring), and a base
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| What is the base? | A ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms than can accept hydrogen ions
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| How are nucleic acids formed? | Phosphate group of one nucleotide is linked to sugar of adjacent nucleotide to form a chain
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| What does DNA contain that RNA doesn't? | The five-carbon sugar deoxyribose
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| How many nucleotides make up DNA? | Four different ones
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| Why are there four? | B/c there are four different bases that are linked to deoxyribose
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| What are the four bases in DNA? | Purine, pyrimidine
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| What are the purine bases? | Double rings of nitroggen and carbon atoms: A and G
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| Pyrimidine bases? | Single ring of nitrogen and carbon atoms: C ,T
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| What is the double helix? | Two chains of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds between purine and pyrimidine bases
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| Why can the DNA binding actually keep the molecules held tightly in the shape of the double helix? | There are MANY hydrogen bonds, which make the connection tight
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| What is the pairing of the bases in DNA? | A with T and C with G
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| how does RNA differ from DNA? What is the new pairing? | Single chain of nucleotides, sugar is ribose, thymine of DNA changes with Uracil, where A binds with U (not T)
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| What is feedforward regulation? | Anticipates changes in homeostasis in order to accept change to maintain global good homeostasis
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| What is the general name of the CHEMICAL component needed to break down bonds/stuff? What about when we make new stuff? | Hydrolysis; dehydration reactions
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| What are the chemicals of proteins? | Carbon, hydrogen Oxygen, nitrogen
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| What are the chemicals of nucleic acids? | Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
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| Are carbs soluble in water? Why or why not? | Yes, because of the hydroxyl groups present in them
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