Physiology Exam I
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| Physiology | study of, or processes involved in, body functions
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| Physiology is the most _______ of all disciplines. | integrative
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| horizontal integration | across disciplines <---->
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| vertical integration | across levels of organization
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| regulation | maintaining or changing of physiological function
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| mechanism | steps undertaken in a physiological process
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| adaptation | a trait that enhances fitness as a result of natural selection
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| design | integration of structure and function to achieve and evolved & optimal level of performance
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| performance | functional ability of a physiological system; outcome of design
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| Basic homeostatic pathway | external/internal condition --> internal change --> change is sensed --> response is made --> change is corrected --> response ends
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| Paracrince | induces a response in adjoining cell
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| autocrine | induces response in same cell
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| What is most common, negative or positive feedback? | negative feedback
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| Give an example of negative and positive feedback | Negative: regulation of blood pressure Positive: Stimulation of pitocin
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| Are homeotatic systems maintains at specific points or ranges? | ranges
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| Four biomolecules | Carbohydrates, Lipids, protiens & nucleotides
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| Which biomolecule is most abundant? | carbohydrates
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| Maltose | glucose + glucose
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| sucrose | glucose + fructose
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| Which form of carbohydrate is stored in plants for energy | starch
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| Which form of carbohydrate is stored in animals for energy | glycogen
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| How does cellulose differ from starch & glycogen? | it is extremely rigid and its chains are interlinked making it difficult to catabolize
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| 90% of lipids are in what specific arrangement? | triglyceride
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| What chemically & physically defines a saturated fat? | form a more dense matrix; made up entirely of C-C single bonds saturated by H; known as a "fat" & is solid at RT
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| What chemically & physically defines an unsaturated fat? | double bond C=C cause kinks and bends allowing more room for flow in the matrix; known as an "oil" & is liquid at RT
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| Amino Acids | building blocks of proteins, 20 common
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| essential amino acid | amino acid not produced naturally in the body but is essential for life; must be derived from diet; there are 10 eAA
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| nucleotide | nitrogenous base (pyrimidines or purines) + sugar; building blocks for DNA, RNA & ATP
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| membranous organelles of a cell | mitochondria, ER, golgi, lysosomes, peroxisomes
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| nonmembranous organelles of a cell | ribosomes, centrosomes, cilia & flagella, microtubules & microfilaments
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| Density of mitochondria of a cell reflects its ________ __________. | energetic capacity
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| Where can the highest concentration of mitochondria/cell be found? | in smooth muscle of the intestine
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| initial site of protein & lipid synthesis | endoplasmic reticulum
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| packages proteins manufactured by the ER | golgi
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| what path does a protein take moving from the ER through the golgi? | 1. synthesized in ER 2. moves to golgi via transport vessicle 3. moves through the golgi, facilitated by transfer vessicles 4. exits golgi via secretory, storage or membrane vessicles
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| lysosomes | break down damaged organelles, bacteria & food
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| What structures help form the cytoskeleton & what role do they play? | 1. tubulin forms microtubules: motility 2. actin forms microfilaments: contraction 3. protein subunits for intermediate filiaments: anchorage
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| Nucleous | contains DNA, double membrane & nucleolous
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| Energy extrapolated from food is equal to ________________________________________ . | energy expended and saved
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| study of energy flux | energetics
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| forms of energy | heat, electrical & mechanical
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| how is energy transformed? | potential to kinetic, but not with 100% efficiency
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| 1st law of thermodynamics | energy is neither created nor destroyed
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| What is the primary form of energy for energetics? | chemical bond energy
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| how is bond energy captured? | potential energy within a bond is transformed to kinetic and released when the bond is broken, giving off heat
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| enzymes | proteins the serve to increase the rate of reaction
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| hydrylase | enzyme in which H2O is used to aid in catalyzing the reaction
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| which metabolic pathways ONLY occur in the presence of O2? | TCA & ETC
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| Which metabolic pathway can occur either aerobically or anaerobically? | Glycolysis
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| Net outcome of Glycolysis | 2 pyruvate + 2H2O
2 ATP*
2 NADH + 2H+
*4 ATP generated, but 2 required to start cycle
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| net outcome of TCA | 2 ATP
8 NADH
2 FADH2
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| In ETC, which complexes allow only the movement of electrons? | Complex II, CoQ, & CytC
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| Proton motive force | concentration gradient of [H+] across a membrane that allows the movement of [H+] back into the matrix by diffusing from high to low concentration
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| ATPase | rotor & rod complex that changes configuration as H+ moves through it, allowing ADP & phosphate to combine to form ATP
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| How many ATP molecules correlate to NADH & FADH2? | NADH = 3 ATP
FADH2 = 2 ATP
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| What is the maximum (or optimal) number of ATP produced in oxidative phosphorylation & what cycle is responsible for them? | Total = 38
Glycolysis = 2ATP
TCA = 2 ATP
ETC = 34 ATP (8 NADH from TCA x3, 2 NADH from glycolysis x3 & 2 FADH2 from TCA x2)
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| where do AA enter into glyc/Krebs/ETC? | anywhere
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| how are fatty acids oxidized? | broken into 2C chains & enter Krebs; glycerols enter glycolysis
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| what is the net production of ATP for an anaerobe? | 2 ATP from glycolysis
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| cell membrane | 1. physical barrier
2. controls entry of ions, elimination of waste & release of secretory products
3. communication
4. support
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| Molecules found in or on bilayer | cholesterol, peripheral & integral proteins, glycolipids, glycoproteins, carbohydrates
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| channel protein | movement through protein, with concentration gradient
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| transport protein | undergoes change in conformation, moves against concentration gradient
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| receptor protein | binds with ligand, changes function of the cell
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| enzyme | catalyzes reactions
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| MHC complex | important in self regognition
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| linker protein | maintains cellular integrity
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| passive transport | includes diffusion & facilitated diffusion; no energy is required; movement is from high concentration to low
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| active transport | required ATP; moves from low concentration to high (against concentration gradient)
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| voltage gated channel | responds to change in electron gradient across the membrane
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| ligand gated channel | responds to some chemical contact
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| mechanical gated channel | responds to some mechanical force or signal (i.e. stretching)
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| mediated transport | involves the aid of membrane protein that experiences a configuration change
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| three properties of mediated transport | 1. Specificity: transporters are specific
2. competition: preferred molecule will out-compete others
3. saturation: there is a maximum transport rate regardless of concentration
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| symport | molecules carried in the same direction in AT
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| antiport | molecules carried in opposite direction in AT
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| Primary AT | requires ATP; ATP --> ADP results in some change in configuration
EX: Na+/K+ pump
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| Secondary AT | no direct use of ATP; binding of one molecule induces a change & allows another molecule to be a transporter
*ALL cotransporter systems
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| Membrane potential | at the membrane, cells are kept at a constant state of chemical and electrical disequalibrium
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| Resting membrane potential | steady state of potential energy established across a membrane due to the difference in chemical or electrical charge
*outside (++) inside (--)
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| hyperpolarization | stimulus opens K+ channels; K+ moves out & cell membrane becomes more neg inside
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| depolarization | stimulus opens Na+ channels; Na+ moves in & inside becomes more (+)
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| graded potential | 1. region on the dendrites are stimulated & ion channels open
2. Na+ enters cell
3. wave of depolarization spreads across the cell body (rock in pond)
4. If wave reaches trigger zone (base of axon) and threshold (-50mv) is achieved, an AP is triggered
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| Action Potential | caused by the movement of Na+ & K+ through opened channels
-do not vary
-do not lose strength
-all or none
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| Steps of AP | 1. resting state: Na/K channels closed
2. threshold: Na opened
3. depolarization: overshoot
4. repolarization: Na closes & K opens
5. resting membrane potential
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| membrane refractory period | time that a mambrane having experienced an AP cannot experience another one; establishes onw-way directionality
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| what influences speed of conduction | 1. diameter of axon (big = fast)
2. resistance to leak
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| What is the purpose of myelin? | besides acting as an insulator:
1. speed
2. uses less energy
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| Saltatory conduction | the "jumping" action of ions from node to node
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| Multiple sclerosis | loss of myelin
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| neurotoxins | block Na/K channels, limiting neural signaling
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| anesthetics | block Na channels, sensation of pain is not transmitted
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| synapse | junction of a neuron with another neuron
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| 3 components of synapse | 1. presynaptic cell
2. synaptic cleft
3. post-synaptic cell
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| gap junctions | allow the passages of electrical impulses from the cytoplams of one cell directly to the cytoplasm of another
-in nervous system & cardiac muscle
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| excitatory synapse | trigger the opening of Na & closing of K
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| inhibitory synapse | triggers opening of K & Cl,
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