Respiratory System
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| respiratory system | organs that oversee gas exchanges occurring between blood & external enviroment
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| The respiratory membrane is | very thin
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| the thin respiratory membrane allows rapid ______ of O2and CO2 | diffusion
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| The superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae serve to | increase the mucosal surface area and increase air turbulence in the nasal cavity
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| A normal tidal volume is about | 500 ml
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| normal tidal volume represents the amount of air | moved into and out of the lungs with each breath
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| Most of the carbon dioxide (CO2) carried in the blood is carried as | the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) in plasma
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| O2 loading & CO2 unloading between pulmonary capillary blood & air in alveoli is called | external respiration
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| The amount of air that enters and leaves the lungs through normal quiet breathing is known as the | tidal volume
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| Over 90% of lung cancers are associated with | smoking cigarettes
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| The acronym COPD is the abbreviation for | Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
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| surfactant is | a lipid
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| surfunctant acts to raise the surface tension | of water with the alveoli
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| The most common lethal genetic disease in the United States is | cystic fibrosis
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| respiratory zone | bronchioles, alveolar ducts & sacs, & alveoli; only site of gas exchange
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| conducting zone structures | serve as conduits to & from respiratory zone; includes all other resp. passageways not in resp zone
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| terminal bronchioles lead into | respiratory zone structures
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| respiratory zone structures terminate in | the aveoli
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| network of branching/rebranching respiratory passageways within lungs is referred to as | brochial tree/respiratory tree
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| stroma | elestic connective tissue of lungs allowing it to reoil passively on exhalation
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| walls of alveoli are composed largely of | single, layer of squamous epithelial cells
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| alveolar pores | connect neighboring air sacs, providing alt. routes for air to reach alveoli
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| external surfaces of alveoli are | covered with "cobweb" of pulmonary capillaries
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| respiratory membrane is also called | air-blood barrier
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| the air-blood barrier is constructed of | avleolar & capillary walls, fused basement membranes & occasional eleastic fibers
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| has gas (air) flowing through on one side & blood following through on the other side | the air-blood barrier
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| oxygen passes from the alveolar air into | the capillary blood
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| carbon dioxide leaving capillary blood enters | the gas-filled alveoli
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| alveolar macrophages are sometimes called | "dust cells"
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| wander in & out of alveoli picking up bacteria, carbon particles & other debris | alveolar macrophages
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| there are cuboidal cells scattered among | the epithelial cells forming most of alveolar walls
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| produce lipid molecule called surfunctant, which is very important to lung function | cuboidal cells of alveoli
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| major function of respiratory system is to | supply blood with oxygen & dispose of cardob dioxide
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| four distinct events allowing respiratory system to complete their function | collectively called respiration
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| pulmonary ventilation | air must move in/out of lung so gases in alveoli are continuously refreshed
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| process of pulmonary ventilation is called | breathing
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| external respiration | gas exchange between pulmonary blood & alveoli
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| gas exchanges are being made between blood & exterior in | external respiration
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| repiratory gas transport | O2 & CO2 must be transported to/from lungs & tissue cells of body via bloodstream
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| internal respiration | at systemtic capillaries gas exchnaged between blood & tissue cells
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| gas exchanges occur between blood & cells inside body during | internal repsiration
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| cellular respiration | actual use of O2 & CO2 produced by tissue cells
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| cornerstone of all energy-producing chemical reactions in the body | cellular respiration
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| breathing is a completely mechanical process that depends on volume exchanges occurring in | the thoracic cavity
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| volume changes lead to | pressure changes
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| pressure changes lead to | flow of gasses to equalize pressure
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| unlike liquid, gas | fills its container
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| in a large volume gas molecules will be far apart and the pressure is | low
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| pressure is created by the gas molesules | hitting eachother & walls of container
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| if volume is reduced the gas molecules will be closer together and the pressure is | rising
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| inspiration | when air is flowing into the lung
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| expiration | when air is leaving the lungs
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| inspiratory muscles are | the diaphragm & external intercostals
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| when inspiratory muscles contract the size of the thoracic cavity | increases
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| when diaphragm contracts it moves | inferiorly & flattens out, or is depressed
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| result of diaphragm contraction, superior-inferior dimension of thoracic cavity | will increase
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| contraction of external intercostals | lifts rib cage & thrusts sternum forward
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| contraction of external intercostals increases the | anteriorposterior & lateral dimensions
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| the lungs adhere tightly to the thorax walls due to | surface tension of fluid between pleural membranes
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| the lungs are stretched to the new, larger size of the thorax because | they are bound to the walls of the thorax
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| intrapulmonary volume | volume within lungs
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| when intrapulmonary volume increases, gases within lungs | spread out to fill the larger space
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| when pressure in the lungs is less than atmospheric pressure | a partial vacuum is produced, which sucks air into the lungs
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| in healthy people this is largely passive process depending on natural elasticity | expiration
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| when inspiratory muscles relax & resume intial resting length, | the rib cage descends & lungs recoil
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| intrapulmonary volume decreases, gases in lungs forced closer together then | intrapulmonary pressure rises to a point higher than atmospheric pressure
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| when intrapulmonary pressure rises to a point higher than atmospheric pressure it causes | gases to flow out to equalize pressure inside/outside lungs
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| unde normal circumstances expiration is | effortless
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| if respiratory passageways are narrowed by spasms or blocked with mucus/fluid | expiration becomes an active process, or forced expiration
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| during forced expiration internal intercostal muscles | are activated to help depress rib cage
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| during forced expiration abdominal muscles contract & help | to force air from lungs by squeezing abdominal organs upward against diaphragm
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| intrapleural pressure | normal pressure within plueral space always negative
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| major force preventing collapse of lungs | negative pressure within plueral space
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| if intrapleural pressure becomes = to atmospheric pressure | the lungs immediately recoil completely & collapse
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| atelectasis | collapsed lung
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| when a lung is collapsed it is | useless for ventilation
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| when air enters pleural space, due to a chest wound it is normal for a | atelectasis to occur
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| atelectasis can also result from | rupture of visceral pleura
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| rupture of visceral pleura allows | air to enter plueral space from respiratory tract
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| pneumothorax | presence of air in intrapleural space, disrupting fluid bond between pleurae
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| revered by drawing air out of intrapleural space with a chest tube | pneumothorax
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| when a pneumothorax is relieved with a chest tube this allows | lung to reinflate & resume its normal function
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| nonrespiratory air movements | result from a reflex activity, but some are produced voluntarily
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| cough, sneeze, cry, laugh are all examples of | nonrespiratory air movements
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| inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) | amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
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| between 2100 & 3200ml is the | normal IRV
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| expiratory reserve volume (ERV) | amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after tidal expiration
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| 1200ml is the approximate | normal ERV
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| residual volume | even after strenuous expiration, the 1200ml of air remaining in lungs, that can't be expelled
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| important because allows continuous gas exchange between breaths & keeps alveoli open | residual volume
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| vital capacity (VC) | sum of TV + IRV + ERV
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| dead space volume | amount of air remaining in conducting zone passageways, never reaching alveoli
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| 150ml is the amount of | dead space volume during a normal tidal breath
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| spirometer | instrument used to measure respiratory capacity
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| useful in evaluating losses in respiratory functioning & follow course of respiratory diseases | spirometer
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| inspiration is obstructed causing decrease in IVR & VC | in pneumonia
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| expiration hampered, causing ERV to be lower than normal & residual volume is higher | in emphysema
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| bronchial sounds | produced by air rushing through trachea & bronchi
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| vesicular breathing sounds | occur as air fills alveoli, soft & resemble muffled breeze
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| crackle | bubbling sound
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| wheezing | whistling sound
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| abnormal respiratory sounds due to disease, mucus or pus | crackle & wheeze
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| all gas exchanges are made according to | laws of diffusion
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| duffusion | movement occurs toward area of lower concentration of diffusing substance
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| dark red blood is found | flowing through pulmonary circuit
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| dark red blood is transformed into scarlet when | returned to heart for distribution to systemic circuit
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| color change of dark red to scarlet blood is due to | oxygen pickup by hemoglobin in lungs
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| there is more oxygen in the | alveoli, than in the lungs
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| because concentration of CO2 higher in pulmonary capillaries than avleolar air, it | will move from blood into alveoli & be flushed out of lungs during expiration
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| oxyhemoglobin | oxygen attaches to hemoglobin molecules inside RBCs
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| small amount of oxygen in carried dissovled in | the plasma
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| enzymatic conversion of CO2 to bicarbonate ion occurs within | RBCs
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| once coverted into bicarbonate ion it | diffuses into the plasma
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| CO2 carried inside RBCs is bound to hemoglobin at | different site than O2
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| before CO2 can diffuse out of blood into alveoli | it must be released from bicarbonate ion form
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| enter RBCs combining with H+ to form carbonic acid | process for CO2 to be released from bicarbonate ion form
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| carbonic acid splits to form | water & CO2, which diffuses from blood into alveoli
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| hypoxia | inadequate O2 delivery to body tissues
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| cyanotic | skin & mucosa take on bluish cast due to lack of O2
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| hypoxia can be result of | anemia, pulmonary disease or impaired/blocked blood circulation
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| leading cause of death from fire | carbon monoxide poisening
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| carbonic anhydrase | speeds upreaction of bicarbonate ions converting to carbonic acid
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| nerve impulses from brain to diaphragm & external intercostals travel by | phrenic or intercostal nerves
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| neural centers that control respiratory rhythm are located | deep in the medulla & pons
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| medulla | sets basic rhythm of breathing & contains self-exciting inspiratory center
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| self-exciting inspiratory center | located in medulla; neurons fire impulses to travel to phrenic/instercostal nerves
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| medulla also contain expiratory center which | inhibits pacemaker in rhythmic way
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| eupnea | normal respiration of rate 12-15 respirations/minute
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| pons centers | smooth out basic ryhthm of inspiration/expiration set by medulla
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| bronchioles & alveoli have stretch receptors that respond to | extreme overinflation by initiating protective reflexes
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| in case of overinflation ____ send inpulses from stretch receptors to medulla | vagus nerves
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| hyperpnea | increased deep breathing, which may/may not be accompanied by increase in respiratory rate
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| Maximal hyperpnea occurs during | strenuous exercise
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| overdose of sleeping pills, morphine or alcohol can lead to | medullary centers being completely suppressed causing respiration to stop, and death
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| concious control of breathing will be overtaken by | involuntary controls once O2 supply becomes low or blood pH falls
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| emtional factors can modify the | rate & depth of breathing
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| emotional factors result from reflexes initiated by emotional stimuli acting | through centers in hypothalamus
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| most important stimuli leading to increase in rate & depth of breathing | increased CO2 & decreased blood pH
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| changes in CO2 levels in blood act directly on | medulla centers by influencing pH of cerebrospinal fluid
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| peripheral chemoreceptors in aorta & fork in common cartoid artery detect | changes in O2 concentration in blood
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| send impulses to medulla when blood O2 levels are dropping | peripheral chemoreceptors in aorta & fork in common cartoid artery
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| the most stimulus for breathing in a person is the body's need to | rid itself of CO2
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| hyperventilation | abnormally fast and deep breathing
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| blows off more CO2, decreasing amount of carbonic acid & returns blood pH to normal | hyperventilation
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| hypoventilation | reduced amount of air entering alveoli, which causes increase in arterial CO2 level
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| acidosis | accumulation of acid & hydrogen ions; depletion of alkaline reserve in blood & body tissues, resulting in decrease in pH
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| alkalosis | decrease in hydrogen ion concentration of blood (increase in pH)
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| when the buffering ability of blood is overwhelmed the result is | acidosis/alkalosis
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