Chapter 1 - Theory & Research in Child Development
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| Child Development | Area of study devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescence
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| Developmental Science | Interdisiplinary field devoted to the study of all changes we experience throughout the lifespan
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| Prenatal Period | Conception to birth (9 months)
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| Infancy & Toddlerhood | Birth - 2 years. Emergence of motor, perceptual, and intellectual capacities/Beginnings of language. First intimate ties to other.
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| Early Childhood | 2-6 years. Body lengthens, motor skills refined. Child more self-sufficient.Make-believe play.
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| Middle Childhood | 6-11 years. Improved athletic abilities. More logical though processes. Mastery of basic literacy skills. Advance in understanding of self, morality and friendship.
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| Adolescence | 11-18 years. Puberty. Abstract and idealistic thoughts. Autonomy.
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| Basic Issues of Developmental Psychology | (1) Continuous or discontinuous (2) One or many possible courses of development? (3) Nature vs. nurture (4) ree will vs determinism
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| Theory | Orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior
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| Continuous Development | View that regards development as a cumulative process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with.
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| Discontinuous Development | Development process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times. Like steps.
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| Tabula Rasa | Blank slate. John Locke’s belief that a child’s character is shaped entirely by experience. Believed praise & approval better than rewards of money or sweets. Opposed physical punishment. Many courses
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| Resilience | Ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development.
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| Noble Savages | Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s view that children are born with a sense of right and wrong and a plan for orderly, healthy growth.
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| Maturation | Genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.
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| Normatative Approach | Age-related averages computed to represent typical development. Launched by Hall & Gesell. Used questionnaires, observations, interviews.
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| Stanley Hall | Founder of child-study movement. Launched normatative approach.
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| Binet & Simon | Constructed the first intelligence test. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
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| Psychoanalytic Perspective | Fred’s view of personality development. Children move through stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. Resolution of conflicts determines psychological adjustment. Discontinuous.
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| Psychosexual Theory | Freud’s theory emphasizes parent’s management of children’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years of life are crucial for personality development.
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| Psychosocial Theory | Erikson’s theory which emphasizes that at each Freudian stage, individuals also acquire attitudes and skills that help them become active, contributing members of society.
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| Erickson’s Psychosocial Stages | (1) Basic trust vs mistrust; Oral – Birth-1 yr (2) Autonomy vs shame and doubt; Anal – 1-3 yrs (3) Initiative vs guilt; Phallic – 3- 6 yrs (4) Industry vs Inferiority; Latency – 6-11 yrs (5) Identity vs role confusion; Genital – Adolescence
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| Behaviourism Watson & Skinner | Directly observable events such as stimuli and response are the appropriate focus of study. Classic and operant condition. John Watson. Continuous Emphasis on nurture.
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| Social Learning Theory Alberta Bandura | Emphasizes the role of modeling or observational learning in development of behavior.
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| Jean Piaget Cognitive-Development Theory | Learning doesn't depend on reinforcers. Construct knowledge as explore their world. Biological adaptation to fit the external world. Stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational stage. Discontinuous.
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| Information Processing Theory | Continuous development. Acquires information through processing (problem solving). Computer like.
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| Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience | Researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, medicine study relationship between changes in the brain and developing child’s cognitive processing and behavior patterns.
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| Ethology | Focuses on adaptive or survival value of behavior and on similarities between human behavior and other species. Both continuous and discontinuous.
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| Evolutionary Developmental Psychology | Understanding the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional and social competencies and their change with age.
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| Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory | Cognitive development a socially mediated process; children depend on assistance from adults and peers to take on new challenges. Stagewise changes. Both continuous and discontinuous. How culture is transmitted to the next generation.
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| Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory | Microsystem. Mesosystem. Exosystem. Macrosystem. Chronosystem is the temporal changes and effects of the system.
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| Dynamic Systems Perspective | Always changing, any changes disrupts the system and child actively reorganize his or her behavior to adapt. Continuous and discontinuous.
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| Hypothesis | Prediction, drawn directly from a theory.
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| Structured Observations | Laboratory situation is set up that evokes a behavior of interest so that every participant has an opportunity to display the response.
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| Ethnography | Observation of a culture or social group. Typically spends months or years in cultural community to observe.
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| Structured Interviews | Each participant is asked the same questions in the same way.
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| Correlational Design | Researcher fathers information on individuals without altering participants’ experience s and examines relationships between variables. CON: No inferences about CAUSE and EFFECT. Quasi-experiemental.
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| Experimental Design | Has independent variable and dependent variable.
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| Longitudinal Design | Participants studied repeatedly at different ages and changes noted as they age. PROS: Able to identify patterns & examine relationships of early and later behaviours. CONS: Participants move. Test-wiseness. cohort effects
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| Cross-Sectional Design | People in different age groups are studied at the same point in time. PROS: No dropout rates. CONS: Cohort effects – effects of cultural-historical change in accuracy of findings; cannot tell if individual differences exist.
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| Sequential Design | Combination of LONGITUDINAL & CROSS SECTIONAL. Several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies at varying times.
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| Microgenetic Design | Presents children with a task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions. Adaption of longitudinal. Useful for studying of cognitive development.
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| Determinism | All behavior is determined by preceding events. OPPOSITION – free will
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| Resilience | Depends on protective factors (Sonja Luther); goodness of fit (Lerner & Lerner);
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| Nature | Inborn biological hereditary information received from our parents
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| Nurture | Forces of physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth
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| Protective Factors (Resilience) | Personal Characteristics. Warm Parental Relationship. Social Support Outside of Immediate Family. Community Resources & Opportunities.
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| Medievil Times | Mixed ideas about children: Children regarded as born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized; children portrayed as innocents
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| Sensorimotor Stages | Birth - 2 yrs. Piaget's first stage. Senses and movements. Think with eyes, ears, hands & mouth
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| Preoperational Stage | 2 - 7 yrs. Piaget's 2nd stage. Symbolic but illogical thinking. Language and make-believe begin
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| Concrete Operational Stage | 7 - 11 yrs. Piaget's 3rd stage. - Organized reasoning, logical.
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| Formal Operational Stage | 11+ yrs. Piaget's 4th stage. Abstract, systematic reasoning.
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| Jean Jacques Rousseau | Noble savages. Child centered philosophy - adults should be receptive to child's needs at all 4 stages of development. Includes 2 steps: stages and maturation. Discontinuous; one course.
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| Stages | Qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development. Periods of rapid transformation from stage to stage, plateaus in between. Discontinuous theories view development as stages.
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