Social Psychology
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| How do people affect us? | How we interpret events, How we feel about ourselves, How we behave
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| Hindsight Bias | tendency to believe that we had predicted an outcome ahead of time, after learning of the results
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| How does science work? | clearly define a problem or a question, collect data pertinent to said question, interpret data, implications of data
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| Operationalization | matching the question up with the idea being tested
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| Observation | watching in either a naturalistic or lab setting
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| Archival | Uses existing records as the data source
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| Survey | asking questions and evaluating the answers according to some coefficient
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| Experiments | Manipulation and control which infer causality
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| Correlational | things that occur together
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| Experimental Designs | Require causation, variables, and randomization
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| Variables | Independent, Dependent, Extraneous, Confounding
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| Standardized Procedures | Conditions are held constant during the conduct of an experiment
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| Experimental Reality | Experimental realism (feel reall to participants), Mundane realism (look and feel real to outside real)
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| Demand Characteristics | Cues that suggest how participants should act or respond
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| Validity | Internal validity, External validity
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| Ethical Guidelines | Informed consent and voluntary participation, risks and benefits, use of deception, confidentiality of records, information about the study and debriefing, IRB approval
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| Social Cognition | processes by which information about people is processed and stored. topics include schematic processing, reconstructive memory, reasoning, problem-solving, counterfactual thinking, and stereotyping
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| Memory | Retention of information over time
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| Basic process of Memory | Encoding, Storage, Retrieval (Attention and Schemas are also important for memory)
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| Schemas | Mental representations of of objects or categories
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| Social factors that might affect LTM | Accessibility, Stereotypes, Heuristics, In-groups/Out-groups
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| Cognitive factors that might affect LTM | Brain damage, Distractions, How much must be learned, Length of time given, How important it is at the time, How well you learned it, Time since you learned it
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| More cognitive factors that might affect LTM | Importance, Amount, Frequency of review, First or last thing learned, Similarity to other material, How it was presented, Competing tasks, Organizations, Effort versus auto-pilot
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| Accessibility | Ease with which a schema is activated. Priming increases accessibility. With chronic accessibility, some schema's are habitually activated
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| Availability Heuristic | Judgements based on how quickly or how easily examples come to mind. Events that are more available in memory are judged as more likely to occur
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| Representative Heuristic | Categorize based on how representative the object is of the larger category.
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| Illusory Correlation | Believing 2 categories are related when they are not.
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| Perseverance Effect | Hold onto self-evaluative beliefs even in the face of dis-confirming evidence.
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| Counterfactual Thinking | How past events might have turned out. Upward counterfactual is how things could have been better. Downward counterfactual is how things could have been worse.
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| Hot Cognition | Mixes feelings with thinking. Related to the self in a social context.
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| Self in social context | Self-serving judgements (self in a positive light).
Self-serving perception of others (improve our evaluation of others).
Self-serving activation of stereotypes (strategically make us look good).
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| Flashbulb Memories | Vivid detailed accounts or recollections of particularly important events. These can be idiosyncratic or history based.
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| Attribution Theory | Intuitive scientists and covariation.
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| Fundamental attribution error | Overestimate internal causes of behavior, underestimate external causes of behavior.
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| Non-verbal Behavior | eye contact, facial expressions, interpersonal distance, vocal cues, gestures, posture
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| Cultural differences in non-verbal behavior | Display rules (when, to whom, and how), hand gestures, interpersonal distance.
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| Self-perception | Looking glass self (integrate others judgments about us)
Social comparison (Upward and downward)
Use behavior to infer attitudes (especially when ambiguous).
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| Overjustification | Counter-intuitive: internal vs external rewards.
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| Self-serving judgments | Enhance our perceptions of self-worth. Have unrealistic optimism but have cultural differences.
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| Self-efficacy | Belief that you are capable
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| Illusions of control | Belief about the controllabilty of uncontrollable events.
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| Self-discrepancy theory | What happens when actual self, ideal self, and ought self conflict.
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| Actual self | How people believe they really are.
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| Ideal self | How people would like themselves to be.
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| Ought self | How people think they ought to be.
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| Impression management | The control of information we make available.
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| Self-presentation | Strategically present ourselves in different ways.
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| Actor/observer difference | The way we view a situation versus how outside observers view a situation (I drive fast because of special circumstances, other think I drive fast because I am a jerk)
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| Dispositions | Consistencies across time and settings. Enduring individual traits and differences
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| Self-esteem | a type of disposition. people's judgement of their own worthiness.
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| Self-concept | formed through social comparison and self-perception.
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| optimal distinctiveness theory | examines how we strike a balance between similarity (with an ingroup) and distinctiveness (as an individual)
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| Self-esteem | derives from personal experience, reflected appraisals by others, relationships, social comparison, and group comparisons
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| Narcissism | represents an exaggerated love of self.
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| Gender Stereotypes | expectations about how men and woman should behave.
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| Self-monitoring | individual differences in relying on external or internal cues to guide behavior
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| Need for cognition | individual differences in liking to think
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| Achievement motivation | individual differences in performance goals
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| Uncertainty orientation | individual differences in learning new things about oneself
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| Archival research | Refers to correlational investigation that are based on preexisting information obtained by the researcher
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| Correlational research | Refers to studies in which investigations measure two or more concepts and see whether the concepts are associated with one another
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| Debriefing | A full and complete description of the study’s design, purpose, and expected results are given to participants after the session is completed
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| Demand characteristics | Cues in a study that suggest to participants how they are supposed to respond
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| Dependent variable | Those concepts that are measured by the researcher and might be affected by the independent variable
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| Experimental realism | the extent to which the experimental setting feels realistic and involving to participants
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| Experimental research | empirical investigations in which researchers manipulate one concept (or more than one) and assess the impact of the manipulation(s) on one or more other concepts
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| External validity | refers to the extent to which research results can be generalized beyond the current sample
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| Extraneous variables | potential sources of error in the experiment and should be controlled
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| Factorial design | two or more independent variables
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| Field experiment | conducted in settings outside the laboratory, tend to increase both mundane realism and external validity
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| Hypothesis | specific predictions about what should occur if a theory is valid
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| Independent variable | manipulated factors in experiments
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| Informed consent | participants are told beforehand what to expect in the study
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| Institutional review board (IRB) | committee that ensures the procedures will not cause unacceptable harm to participants
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| Interaction | effect of one manipulation depends on the level of another manipulation
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| Internal validity | the extent to which the research yields clear causal information
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| Mundane realism | the extent to which the experimental setting looks and feels like the outside world.
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| Observational studies | correlational investigations in which the researcher watches participants and codes measures from the observed behavior
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| Operational definition | specific, observable responses that are used to measure a concept
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| Participant-observation research | special kind of observational study, in which the researcher actually joins an ongoing group to observe the members’ behavior
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| Psychometrics | a sub-discipline within psychology that is devoted to understanding and refining measures for psychological measurements
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| Random assignment | each participant in the experiment is equally likely to take part in any of the experimental conditions
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| Random sampling | every person in a particular population has the same probability of being in the study
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| Reliability | the consistency or stability of scores on a measure, both over time and across judges
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| Representative sample | a group of respondents that accurately reflects the larger population
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| Single-factor experiment | one independent variable
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| Socially desirable responding | respondents motivated to create a positive impression of themselves
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| Survey | correlational studies in which the researcher asks questions to respondents
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| Theory | explanations of why particular events or outcomes occur
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| Unobtrusive measures | the participants do not realize that the measures are being taken
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| Validity | refers to whether scores on a measure really represent the underlying concept they are supposed to represent
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| Behaviorism | Attempts to explain behavior purely in terms of stimulus-response connections established through experience and reinforcement.
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| Gestalt Theory | Assumes that people’s overall, subjective interpretations of objects are more important than the objects’ external, physical features.
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| Social contract | Idea that human societies have developed some basic rules of social and moral conduct, which members of the societies implicitly agree to follow
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| Social Psychology | Scientific study of how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people
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| Encoding | getting information into memory and includes attention, comprehension, and storage
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| Retrieval | refers to getting information out of memory
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| Automatic process | a judgment or thought that we cannot control - it occurs without intention, very efficiently and something beneath our awareness
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| controlled process | a judgment or thought that we command - it is intentional, requires significant cognitive resources, and occurs within our awareness.
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| Blank Lineup | group of individuals (a lineup) that does not include the suspect
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| Sequential Lineup | each person in the group (lineup)separately
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| Mood-congruent recall | tendency for positive or negative feelings to make similarly valenced information more accessible in memory
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| False Consensus effect | assumption that other peopel share their attitudes and behaviors to a greater extent than is actually the case
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| Discounting principle | the perceived role of a cause will be discounted (reduced) if other plausible causes are present
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| Augmentation principle | the perceived role of a cause will be augmented (increased) if other factors are present that would work against the behavior
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| Relative deprivation | feelings of anger or resentment about one's outcomes based on comparison with better-off others
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| False hope syndrome | individuals repeatedly try (unsuccessfully) to achieve a goal despite previous failures
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| Ingratiation | behavior that is designed to make someone like you
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| Dispositions | individuals' consistencies across time and setting in a specific type of feeling, thought, and/or action, which make individuals different from other people
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| Parental investment hypothesis | having children is more costly for women than for men
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