Chapters 8-11
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| Watson's lecture at Columbia in 1913 | -Watson was invited by Cattell
-Watson was 34 years old and from the Univ of Chicago
-Psychology has failed as a science.
-Don't study mental states, don't study introspection.
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| Facts about Watson (1878-1958) | -Grew up in poverty in South Carolina
-Graduated from Furman University
-Studied with Dewey and Angell in Chicago
-Liked psychology over philosophy
-PhD in 1903 with Herbert Donaldson (neurologist)
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| Watson thought that animals were excellent subjects because... | They were adaptive learners and problem solvers.
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| Comparative psychology | -Big influence on behaviorism
-Origins are with Darwin
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| George Romanes | -Comparative psychologist
-Introspection by analogy
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| Introspection by analogy | Attribution of human mental processes to animals
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| C. Lloyd Morgan | -Comparative psychologist
-Morgan's canon
-Conducted first experiments with animals
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| Morgan's canon | Don't invoke higher mental processes if you can explain behavior with simpler ones
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| Edward Thorndike | -Comparative psychologist
-Cattell's student at Columbia
-Associated with the Law of effect
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| Law of effect | Successful behaviors and responses are learned (reinforced)
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| Pavlov's Discovery: Classical Conditioning | -Pair bell with food
-At first only food caused dog to salivate
-After a number of bell + food pairings
-The bell alone caused salivation
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| The goal of psychology according to Watson | Predict and control behavior
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| Watson's thoughts about introspection and consciousness | Introspection: not valid scientific method
Consciousness: inaccessible, maybe not even real; not worth studying
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| Little Albert Experiment | -Cause change in emotion in humans
-Baby exposed to animals and not afraid
-Started pairing the sight of rat with loud noise which induced fear
-After a while, sight of rat alone induced fear
-Followed Pavlov's procedure
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| Tolman | -Neobehaviorism
-PhD at Harvard under Munsterberg
-Worked at Berkeley
-Book "Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men"
-Latent learning
-Cognitive maps
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| Ideas asserted in Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men (Tolman) | -Behavior is purposive and goal directed
-Purposiveness determined by cognitions
-Rats have cognitive maps
-Experience builds up expectancies about the environment
-Stimulus->Intervening Variables->Response
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| Cognitive maps | Spatial representations of the world (Tolman)
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| Latent learning | Reinforcement not necessary for learning
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| Clark Hull | -Neobehaviorism
-PhD at Univ of Wisonsin
-Worked at Yale
-Psychology is a natural science
-Behavior quantifiable with a few exact ordinary equations
-Reinforcement is necessary for learning and operates by means of drive reduction
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| List of drives, according to Drive Reduction (Hull) | -Hunger
-Thirst
-Oxygen
-Pain avoidance
-Sleep
-Sex
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| Hypothetico-deductive method (Hull) | -Generated testable hypotheses
-Considered good science
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| B.F. Skinner | -PhD at Harvard
-Called his science the experimental analysis of behavior
-Worked with few subjects, no stats, just demonstration of behavior changes
-developed the Skinner box
-operant conditioning
-Book "Beyond Freedom and Dignity"
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| Operant conditioning (Skinner) | -"Reverse" Pavlov
-How consequences of behavior, not the stimulus, affects behavior
-How good behaviors promoted, and bad behaviors suppressed
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| "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" | -1971
-Claimed that freedom is an illusion
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| Events that led to psychology being considered a profession | -APA founded (1892)
-First APA constitution (1895); objective: "advancement of psychology as a science"
-1945, changed constitution to include "profession"
-(1981) APA defined 4 professional areas: clinical, school, counseling, I/O
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| What defines psychology as a profession | -requires long training
-includes specialized knowledge
-high standards of practice
-continuing education encouraged
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| Walter Dill Scott | -Known for work in advertising psychology
-Developed over 100 tests for 80+ kinds of army jobs
-Tested 3.5 million soldiers
-Tests were originally developed for career screening in sales
-Awarded with Distinguished Service Medal (1919)
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| Harry Hollingworth in World War I | Worked at Army Hospital on "shell shock" cases (PTSD)
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| American Association of Clinical Psychologists (AACP, 1917) | -Director was J.E. Wallace Wallin
-Membership served as a credential to the public
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| Leta Hollingworth in the AACP | -As secretary, formulated certain demands
-certification and licensure exam needs
-APA should list approved psychology departments where one can obtain a terminal degree in clinical psychology
-AACP became part of APA, but still not treated well
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| Association of Consulting Psychologists (ACP, 1930) | In 1937 developed Journal of Consulting Psychology
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| American Association of Applied Psychology (AAAP, 1938) | Included clinical, consulting, educational and industrial
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| Early role of clinical psychology | -Administer and score tests
-Maybe interpret test results (medical and psychiatric communities fought this)
-1930s: expanded from intellectual to personality assessment
-Relied on Rorschach Inkblot test which was heavily used until 1970s
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| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and Minnesota Personality Inventory (MMPI) were added to clinical practice in... | 1930s and 1940s
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| The role of World War II in clinical psychology | -Provided next big step: providing psychotherapy
-1946: 60% of VA patients were neuropsychiatric cases
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| 1949 APA Conference in Boulder CO | -Plan of study developed
-Strong science background
-clinical skills (1 year internship)
-David Shakow was the creator of the scientist-practitioner model
-Licensing laws in all states were passed and established by 1977
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| Development of therapy | -Psychotherapy was the main method in the beginning (influenced by Freud, resolving interpersonal and intrapsychic conflicts)
-Group therapy, created by psychiatrist Jacob Moreno
-Behavior therapy (1950s)
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| Behavior therapy | -Joseph Wolpe's systematic desensitization (overcome phobias, anxiety)
-Skinnerian operant psychology
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| Walter Van Dyke Bingham (1880-1952) | -Established applied psychology department at Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1915
-Hired Scott from Northwestern Univ
-Studied mostly personnel psychology
-Job analysis, selection, performance appraisal
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| Industrial/Organizational Psychology | -Organizational aspects: human relations in the workplace (Hawthorne studies), productivity and job satisfaction checks
-World War II gave it a huge impetus, Human factors-> engineering psychology -design of equipment-> efficiency, safety
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| Important People in School Psychology | -Stanley Hall: child study movement
-L. Witmer: 1st school psychologist (unofficially) treated school related problems in children and adolescents
-Arnold Gesell: 1st school psychologist (officially)
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| Early work in school psychology | -Identify mentally defective children
-send them to schools for the feebleminded
-study of gifted children (Terman and Stanford)
-Leta Hollingworth: 1st textbook on gifted education
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| Important dates in school psychology | 1935: NY, 1st state to offer certification in school psychology
1953: only 3 doctoral programs
1954: Thayer conference, 50 attendees
1971: 1st doctoral program accredited by APA
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| Current state of school psychology | -200 universities with PhD programs
-25,000 school psychologists
-APA, Div 16, and NASP
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| The development of Counseling psychology | -emerged later
-prolonged identity crisis
-originated in vocational guidance movement & personnel work in I/O
-became more similar to clinical psychology
Beginnings in 1920s:career counseling via intellectual and personality assessment tools
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| Influence of Carl Rogers in counseling psychology with the nondirective counseling program | -no tests, no advice
-active listening skills
-change through self-exploration and understanding
-help patients help themselves
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| Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) | -Founded 1936
-Still exists as DIV 9 in APA
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| Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley | -1903: Univ of Chicago, dissertation-first experim. study of sex differences
-25 males,25 females
-20hr long battery of tests: sensory, motor, cognitive, personality
-Conclusion: no major inborn differences
-Upbringing might be source of differences
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| Leta Stetter Hollingworth | -Wife of Harry Hollingworth (advertising)
-Couldn't get a job in NY, not allowed to work outside home
-1916: PhD @ Teacher's College w/ Thorndike
-Dissertation: Does menstrual cycle affect women's cognition and emotions during the period? No evidence.
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| Variability Hypothesis (studied/disproved by Leta Stetter Hollingsworth) | -More men at low and high end of IQ
-More males 0-13, more females 13+ at mental institutions; explanation: females can exist longer outside an institution due to societal pressures
-Data from birth records: no sex diff in variability for 10 measures
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| Kurt Lewin | -Came to U.S. in 1933, spent time at MIT
-Considered part of Gestalt Psychology Movement
-Became president of SPSSI in 1941
-Kurt Lewin award has been issued in his honor annually
-Jew during Nazi era
-Found Research Center for Group Dynamics @ MIT
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| Kurt Lewin's action research | -Research on social problems is not enough, one has to find a way to use that research to change situations in real life
-Situations and life space shape behavior (include both environmental and personal factors)
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| Scientific Racism | Science used as a tool for racist views
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| R. Meade Bache (scientific racism example) | -Univ of Penn, 1895
-RT increases with evolution
-Native Amer. fastest, Afr Amer 2nd fastest, Whites slowest
-Interpretation: task is primitive, does not require higher brain functions
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| Floyd Allport's 1924 book "Social Psychology" | -Inferiority not just due to inheritance(worst case), but to culture (which can be fixed)
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| Otto Klineberg (non-racist explanation) | Racist claim: Blacks in North had higher IQ than in the South
Racist explanation: smart Blacks moved North (selective migration)
Non-racist explanation: environment is the difference (culture, education)
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| Turning points in psychology on race | -From 1920s more non-WASP psychologists were trained
-Opposition to Hitler
-10,000 PhDs awarded 1876-1920, but only 11 to Afr Americans
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| Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark | -Civil Rights movement
-Brown vs. Board of Education expert witnesses: self-esteem in Black children in segregated schools is lower
-first time psychological research used in Supreme Court decision
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| Gestalt psychology | -"The whole is different from the sum of its parts"
-Holistic approach opposed reductionism (most of psychology and science)
-Phenomenological approach: studying experience as it occurs, as it appears
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| Founders of Gestalt psychology | -Max Wertheimer
-Kurt Koffka
-Wolfgang Kohler
*These men would eventually overshadow Wundt in Germany
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| Max Wertheimer | -German psychologist
-Studied with Carl Stumpf in Berlin
-PhD in Wurzburg with Ozwald Kulpe
-Most influenced by Austrian philosopher/psychologist Christian von Ehrenfels
-One of 3 founders of Gestalt Psych
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| Phi Phenomenon (Gestalt psychology) | -Apparent motion from static pictures presented stroboscopically
-Introspection cannot get rid of the illusion
-Experience is different than physical stimulus
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| Gestalt psychology vs. Behaviorism | -Experience is not directly knowable, behavior is (behaviorism)
-Experience is the only thing worth knowing (Gestaltists)
-Gestaltists believed in innate organizing tendencies of the mind manifested as grouping principles in everyday experiences
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| Zeigarnik effect (Gestalt psychology) | Memory about interrupted or incomplete tasks is better than about completed tasks
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| Restructuring (gestalt psychology) | -Find out how problems are represented in the mind
-Reorganize representations and their functions
-Kohler (1925) Sultan the chimp
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| Gestaltists in the USA | -Koffka in 1924 at Smith College
-Wertheimer in 1933 at New School for Social Research in NYC
-Lewin in 1933
-Kohler in 1935 at Swarthmore College
*Did not have a big impact or huge following initially, because no grad students
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| FC Bartlett | -British psychologist
-Head of psychology in Cambridge
-Studied social and cultural influences on memory
-Memory is just as much constructed, as it is reconstructed
-Inherently prone to errors
-Associated with "schema" and "War of the Ghosts"
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| Schema (FC Bartlett) | Cognitive framework that organizes past experiences related to particular concepts
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| Proof that memory is constructive (Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts") | -English subjects read story, retell
-Recall story from Canadian Native American folklore
-Errors consistent with English culture (boat-> canoe; seal hunt-> sailing expedition)
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| The birth of modern cognitive psychology | -Hixon symposium on cerebral mechanisms in behavior (Sept 1948, Cal Tech)
-First mention of the computer metaphor: humans as information processors
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| John von Neumann | Human brains are information processing devices
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| Artificial intelligence (1950s) developed by... | -Alan Newell
-Herbert Simon: predicted in 1957 that a computer would beat a world chess master in 1967, it happened in 1997
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| Donald Broadbent's model of selective attention (Broadbent's Filter Model, 1958) | -First flow chart of human cognition
-Human as information processor
-Messages>Sensory store>Filter>(Attended message)>Detector>To memory
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| Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Memory model | -First flow chart model of memory
Input>Sensory>Short term memory to rehearsal or output or Long-term memory
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| Pioneers in cognitive psychology | -Jerome Bruner
-Roger Brown
-Noam Chomsky
-Ulric Neisser
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| Jerome Bruner | -Categorization of concepts
-Used introspection, thinking out loud methods
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| Roger Brown | -tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
-flashbulb memory
-how much of language is influenced by thought
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| Noam Chomsky | -review of Skinner's "Verbal Behavior"
-nativist view of language
-computer metaphor: language acquisition device
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| Ulric Neisser | Book "Cognitive Psychology" (1967), coined the term
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