kinesiology/biomechanics
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| kinesiology | the study of motion or human movement |
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| biomechanics | the study of mechanical forces as they relate to functional and anatomical analysis of biological systems |
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| structural kinesiology | the study of muscles as they are involved in the science of movement; involves skeletal and muscular structures whose sizes and shapes allow or limit movement |
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| anatomical position | standing in an upright posture, facing straight ahead, feet parallel and close, with palms facing forward; most commonly used |
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| fundamental position | standing in an upright posture, facing straight ahead, feet parallel and close, with palms facing the body and arms at the side |
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| volar | relating to the palm of the hand or sole of the foot |
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| sagittal plane | divides the body into equal, bilateral segments (right and left halves) | anteroposterior plane (ap) |
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| frontal plane | divides the body into anterior and posterior segments (front and back halves) | lateral or coronal plane |
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| transverse plane | divides the body into superior and inferior segments in anatomical position (top and bottom halves) | axial or horizontal plane |
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| frontal axis | runs medial to lateral. runs from side to side at a right angle to the sagittal plane of motion (parallel to the frontal plane of motion) | coronal, lateral, or mediolateral axis | flexion and extension movements |
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| sagittal axis | runs anterior to posterior. runs from front to back at a right angle to the frontal plane of motion (parallel to the sagittal plane of motion) | anteroposterior axis | abduction and adduction movements |
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| vertical axis | runs superior to inferior. runs straight down through top or head and is at a right angle to the transverse plane of motion | long or longitudinal axis | internal rotation and external rotation movements |
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| diarthrodial joints | sleevelike joint capsule that secretes synovial fluid to lubricate joint cavity | synovial or freely moveable joint |
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| ginglymus joint | uniaxial articulation that allows movement in only one plane | hinge joint | elbow or knee
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| trochoid joint | uniaxial articulation | pivot joint |
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| condyloid joint | biaxial ball and socket joint, concave meets convex | knuckle joint | metacarpal-phalanx
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| enarthrodial joint | multiaxial or triaxial ball and socket joint, round head meets concave | (true) ball and socket joint | hip and shoulder joints
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| sellar joint | unique triaxial joint with reciprocally concave and convex | saddle joint |
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| circumduction | circular movement that delineates an arc or describes a cone | circumflexion | flexion, extension, abduction and adduction |
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| pronation | internal rotation of the radius resulting in a palm-down forearm or the combination of ankle dorsiflexion, subtalar eversion and forefoot abduction |
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| supination | external rotation of the radius resulting in a palm-up forearm or the combination of plantar flexion, subtalar inversion and forefoot adduction | pigeontoe |
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| lateral flexion | movement of head and or trunk laterally away from midline | abduction of the spine |
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| reduction | return of spinal column to anatomical position from lateral flexion | adduction of the spine |
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| (skeletal) muscle contraction | to create body and joint movements, protect, support, and produce heat |
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| muscle action | concentric contraction of muscles across a joint causing specific movement of the joint, usually by a group of muscles |
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| muscle innervation | one nerve innervates multiple muscles or parts of muscles, or more than one nerve innervates a muscle |
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| muscle gaster | the central and contractile part of a muscle | muscle belly or body |
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| muscle origin | most stable attachment of a muscle; closest to midline or center of body | proximal |
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| muscle insertion | most moveable attachment; farthest from midline or center of body | distal |
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| muscle cross section diameter | greater size indicates greater force exertion | muscle size |
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| muscle length | longer muscles can more effectively move joints through larger range of motion |
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| parallel (muscle fiber arrangement) | fibers arranged along the length of the muscle; more ROM |
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| pennate (muscle fiber arrangement) | fibers arranged obliquely, featherlike to tendon; more power |
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| flat muscles | thin and broad parallel muscles that originate from an aponeuroses | spread force(s) over a broad area | rectus abdominus, external obliques
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| fusiform muscles | spindle-shaped parallel muscles that have a central belly and taper off to tendons at each end | focuses power on small, bony area(s) | brachialis, biceps brachii
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| strap muscles | parallel muscles that have a uniform(ish) diameter | focuses power on small, bony area(s) | sartorius
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| radiate muscles | triangular parallel muscles that originate on a broad aponeuroses and converge onto a tendon; combination of flat and fusiform arrangements | pectoralis major, trapezius
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| sphincter muscles | strap muscles arranged circularly around openings | close openings during contraction | orbicularis oris
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| unipennate muscles | fibers run obliquely from a tendon on one side | biceps femoris, extensor digitorum longus, tibialis posterior
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| bipennate muscles | fibers run obliquely from both sides of a central tendon | rectus femoris, flexor hallucis longus
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| multi-pennate muscles | fibers run diagonally between several tendons, producing a weaker contraction than other pennate types | deltoid
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| irritability | sensitivity to chemical, electrical or mechanical stimuli |
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| contractility | ability to contract and develop tension against resistance when stimulated |
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| extensibility | ability to be stretched back to original length following contraction |
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| elasticity | ability to return to original length following stretching |
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| isometric muscle contraction | static contraction; muscle tension to maintain joint angle in a stable position | same length | prevents movement by external forces |
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| isotonic muscle contraction | dynamic contraction; muscle tension causes (or controls) joint angle change | same tension |
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| concentric contraction | positive isotonic contraction; muscle shortens as it develops tension to move against resistance |
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| eccentric contraction | negative isotonic contraction; muscle lengthens under tension to control descent of resistance |
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| isokinetic contraction | dynamic exercise with isotonic contraction(s) while maintaining movement speed | same motion/speed | biodex, cybex, lido
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| CNS stimulation | cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, brain stem and spinal cord |
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| PNS sensory neurons | afferent neurons conduct signals from receptors to the CNS | afferent neurons |
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| CNS neurons | interneurons transmit between sensory neurons and CNS and CNS and motor neurons | assosciation neurons |
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| PNS motor neurons | efferent neurons conduct signals from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands) | efferent neurons |
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| sarcomere | smallest functional unit of muscle; made of sarcoplasm, transverse tubules, and sarcoplasmic reticulum |
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| myofilament | units that compose myofibrils (in sarcomere); actin and myosin |
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| I band | no myosin |
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| A band | myosin |
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| H zone | no actin |
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| Z line | actin |
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| sarcoplasm | contains stored glycogen and myoglobin |
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| transverse tubules | pathway to muscle |
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| sarcoplasmic reticulum | storage site for calcium |
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| myosin ATPase | enzyme used to cause myosin head to detach from actin filament |
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| actin filament | troponin on tropomyosin receive calcium, blocking the active site (actin) |
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| node of ranvier | allows nerve signal to jump down axon, increasing speed of transmission with saltatory conduction |
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| all-or-none principle | activated motor nerve contracts all fibers it innervates |
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| sliding filament theory | chemical process triggering the release of energy to the crossbridge of myosin and actin filaments; 11 steps |
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| size principle | an orderly recruitment of motor units related to neuron size, in which smaller units take less stimulus to activate |
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| kinesthesis | the conscious awareness of position and movement of the body in space |
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| proprioceptors | sensors that provide information about joint angle, muscle length, and tension, which is integrated to give information about the position of a limb in space | muscle spindles and GTOs
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| proprioception | subconscious mechanism by which the body is able to regulate posture and movement by responding to stimuli originating in proprioceptors of the joints, tendons, muscles and inner ear |
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| muscle spindle | monitors and controls muscle length; mostly run parallel to fibers in muscle belly | myotatic reflex and reciprocal inhibition |
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| myotatic (stretch) reflex | stretching muscle contracts; an impulse is sent to the CNS after a rapid muscle stretch and the CNS activates a motor neuron of the muscle to cause it to contract | knee-jerk, quick short squat before a jump`
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| reciprocal inhibition | opposing muscle relaxes |
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| golgi tendon organ (gto) | proprioceptor in tendon near junction with muscle; protects from excessive stretch by causing muscle contraction |
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| golgi tendon reflex | an impulse is sent to CNS when gto meets stretch threshold, so the CNS sends a signal for the muscle to relax and protectively activates antagonist muscles |
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| length - tension relationship | amount of tension a muscle is capable of depends on the muscle's length before it is stimulated |
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| mechanical advantage | load divided by effort | resistance/force, or (force arm length)/(resistance arm length) |
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| levers | most common machine in the body; rotate around an axis as a result of force (effort, E) being applied to cause its movement against a resistance or weight |
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| wheel-axles | rotate about an axis due to force to cause movement against resistance, but primarily to enhance ROM and speed of movement |
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| pulleys | function to change effective direction of force application |
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| lever | a rigid bar that turns about an axis of rotation or a fulcrum | bones
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| point (f) | the effort arm, where force is applied | contraction at muscle insertion
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| point (r) | the center of gravity of the lever, where external resistance is applied |
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| axis (a) | the fulcrum; the point of rotation about which the lever moves in the body | joints
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| first class lever | FAR | balanced movement if A midway between F and R; ROM and speed if A is closer to F; force production if A is closer to R | A closer to F: triceps in elbow extension
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| second class lever | ARF (few in human body) | force production | raising the body up on the toes (plantar flexion)
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| third class lever | AFR (most common in human body) | ROM and speed | elbow flexion (*brachialis)
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| torque | force magnitude * force arm; the turning effect of an eccentric force applied to (non-)fixed axis in a direction not in line with the object's center of gravity |
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| fixed axis | contracting muscles apply eccentric force to attached bone and cause it to rotate about an axis at the joint, in a direction not in line with the object's center of rotation |
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| force arm | perpendicular distance between location of F and A. as length increases, torque increases, making it easier to move a relatively large R | moment arm or torque arm |
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| resistance arm | distance between the A and the point of R application |
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| force arm and force magnitude | as FA increases, FM decreases to move constant RA and R |
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| resistance arm and resistance | resistance arm decreases as resistance increases if FM and FA are constant |
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| resistance components and force components | as RA and R increase, F and FA increase |
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| first class levers and FA, F, RA, R | FA and R are inversely proportional to F |
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| second class levers and mechanical advantage | MA increases when R is closer to A; force is more effective when R is closer to F |
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| third class levers and point of force application (F) | need more F than R because RA is longer than FA. if F is closer to A than more ROM and speed. if F is closer to R, than less force is needed |
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| torque and lever arm lengths | human system is built for ROM and speed at expense of F; need more F to move when FA is short and RA is long |
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| lever length and velocity | as length increases, lever can more effectively impart velocity |
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| lever length and linear force | increase together, allowing better performance in some sports |
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| wheel and axle: fulcrum | center of wheel and axle |
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| wheel and axle: force arms | radius of wheel and axle |
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| wheel and axle: mechanical advantage | wheel radius/axle radius |
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| wheel and axle: speed advantage | if force is applied to the axle than the outside of the wheel will travel faster and farther than the axle by the MA | rotator cuff applies force to humerus (a) and hand and wrist (w) travel far and fast
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| pulleys | function to change effective direction of force application; can be combined to increase MA | lateral malleolus transmits force to plantar aspect of foot for eversion and plantar flexion
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| kinematics | description of motion that includes time, displacement, velocity, acceleration and space |
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| kinetics | study of forces assocaited with the motion of the body |
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| dynamics | study of systems in motion with acceleration; system is unbalanced due to unequal forces acting on the body |
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| linear motion | motion along a line | translatory motion |
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| rectilinear | motion along a straight line |
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| curvilinear | motion along a curved line |
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| linear displacement | distance that a system moves in a straight line |
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| angular motion | rotation around an axis (joint); produces the linear motion of walking | rotary motion |
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| angular displacement | change in location of a rotating body |
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| displacement | distance from object's original point of reference |
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| law of inertia | a body in motion tends to remain in motion at the same speed in a straight line unless acted on by a force; a body at rest tends to remain at rest unless acted on by a force |
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| inertia and human movement | muscles produce the force to change the amount and direction of motion; the body segment tends to maintain the current state of motion |
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| factors affecting inertia | as mass increases, inertia increases, and more force is needed to significantly change inertia |
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| energy cost | steady pace and direction conserves energy; irregularly paced/ directed activity is very costly to energy reserves |
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| law of acceleration | acceleration is affected by mass, direction of generating force, and speed of body part imparting force | f=m*a |
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| law of reaction | for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction |
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| action force | force we impart onto surface |
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| ground reaction force | surface's force due to action force | easier to run on track than on sand
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| friction | force created by the resistance of two objects moving upon one another | increases for running, decreases for swimming
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| coefficient of friction | force needed to overcome the friction over force holding the surfaces together | force to push a boulder
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| rolling friction | resistance to an object rolling across a surface; rf |
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| equilibrium | state of zero acceleration where there is no change in the speed or direction of the body |
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| static equilibrium | body is at rest or completely motionless |
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| dynamic equilibrium | all applied and inertial forces acting on the moving body are in balance, resulting in movement with unchanging speed or direction |
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| balance | ability to control equilibrium (static or dynamic) |
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| stability | resistance to a change in body acceleration or equilibrium |
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| center of gravity (COG) | point at which all of body's mass and weight are equally balanced or equally distributed in all directions |
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| force | produced by muscles to cause change in the position of a body segment, the entire body, or some object; many activities require a summation of forces |
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| momentum | mass*velocity; increases when resistance to change in inertia or state of motion increases; may be altered by impulse |
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| impulse | force*time |
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| hip joint | teres ligament attaches femoral head to acetabulum of pelvic girdle and slightly limits adduction | acetabulofemoral joint |
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| pelvic girdle | right and left pelvic bones, joined posteriorly by the sacrum and anteriorly by the pubic symphysis |
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| muscles that originate on the anterior pelvis | tensor fasciae latae, sartorius, rectus femoris | hip flexors |
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| muscles that originate on the posterior pelvis | gluteus maximus, hamstrings | hip extensors |
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| muscles that insert on the patella | quadriceps |
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| pubic symphysis | anterior connection between pelvic bones; amphiarthrodial joint |
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| sacroiliac joint | posterior connection between the sacrum and the right or left pelvic bones |
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| hip diagonal adduction | combinatino of adduction and flexion |
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| hip diagonal abduction | combinatino of abduction and extension |
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| anterior pelvic rotation | iliac crest tilts forward in a sagittal plane | anterior tilt |
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| posterior pelvic rotation | iliac crest tilts backward in a sagittal plane | posterior tilt |
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| left transverse pelvic rotation | pelvis rotates to body's right; left iliac crest moves anteriorly while right iliac crest moves posteriorly |
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| right transverse pelvic rotation | pelvis rotates to body's left; right iliac crest moves anteriorly, while left iliac crest moves posteriorly |
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| tibiofemoral joint | hinge joint; femoral condyles articulate with tibial condyles | trochoginglymus because of rotation during flexion |
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| patellofemoral joint | arthrodial joint; gliding of patella on femoral condyles |
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| patella | sesamoid bone imbedded in quadriceps and patellar tendon; improves angle of pull by acting as a pulley, causing greater mechanical advantage in knee extension |
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| knee: static stability | provided by ligaments: MCL, ACL, PCL, LCL |
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| knee: dynamic stability | provided by contraction of quadriceps and hamstrings |
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| anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) | crosses within knee between tibia and femur to maintain anterior and rotary (static) stability; commonly injured |
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| acl injury | caused by noncontact rotary forces, hyperextension, violent quadricep contraction pulling tibia forward on femur, or direct impact at front of thigh on when leg is stable |
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| posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) | crosses within knee between tibia and femur to maintain posterior and rotary (static) stability; prevents femur from sliding off tibia anteriorly |
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| pcl injury | caused by direct contact to a flexed knee; not a common injury |
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| fibular (lateral) collateral ligament (LCL) | maintains lateral stability (static); not commonly injured |
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| tibial (medial) collateral ligament (MCL) | maintains medial static stability by resisting valgus force or preventing knee from being abducted; common injury in contact sports |
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| q angle | higher in females; associated with some knee problems |
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| excessive ankle inversion | most common sprain; usually ATF ligament tears |
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| types of ankle sprains | type 3 is most severe |
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| shin splints | common name for conditions resulting in pain along or just behind the tibia |
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| supination | combination of ankle plantar flexion, inversion and adduction | toe in |
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| pronation | combination of ankle dorsiflexion, eversion and abduction | toe out |
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| vertebral column | 33 total; 24 articulating |
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| lordosis | excessive posterior concavity of lumbar or cervical curves |
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| ribs | 12 pairs: 7 true; 5 false, 3 pairs attach indirectly to the sternum, 2 floating pairs |
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| atlantooccipital joint | first vertebral joint; allows capital flexion and extension |
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| atlantoaxial joint | most cervial rotation occurs here; atlas sits on axis |
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| proximal carpal row (radial to ulnar) | scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform |
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| distal carpal row (radial to ulnar) | trapezuim, trapezoid, capitate, hamate |
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| carpal tunnel syndrome | inflammation of and pressure on the median nerve due to repetitive motions |
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| acromioclavicular joint | often injured arthrodial joint supported by coracoclavicular ligaments |
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| rotator cuff injury causes | strenuous circumduction, shoulder dislocation, hard fall/blows, repetitive motion in a position above horizontal; supraspinatus is most commonly injured |
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| shoulder injury causes | shallowness of glenoid fossa, laxity of ligaments for ROM, lack of strength and endudurance in shoulder muscles |
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| "tommy john procedure" | tendon graft associated with the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) |
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| "tennis elbow" | lateral epicondylitis |
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| "golfer's elbow" | medial epicondylitis |
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| 2-joint (leg) muscles | most effective when origin or insertion is stabilized or muscle is lengthened | sartorius, hamstrings, rectus femoris
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| ligaments | tough, non-elastic capsule thickenings that provide additional support against abnormal movement or joint opening |
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| arthrodial joint | two plane or flat bony surfaces | gliding joint |
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| goniometer | instrument used to measure amount of movement in a joint or measure joint angles |
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