Summary of Chapter 6
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| All types of research | require collecting data
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| data | are pieces of evidence used to examine a research topic or hypothesis
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| Constructs | mental abstractions such as personality, creativity, and intelligence that cannot be observed or measured directly
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| Constructs | become variables when they are stated in terms of operational definitions
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| Variables | placeholders that can assume any one of a range of values
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| Categorical variables | assume non-numerical (nominal) values
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| quantitative variables | assume numerical values and are measured on an ordinal, interval, or ratio scale
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| Independent variable | the treatment or cause
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| Dependent variable | outcome or effect of the independent variable
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| Three main ways to collect data for research studies | 1. administering an existing instrument
2. constructing one's own instrument
3. recording naturally occurring events (i.e., observations)
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| Standardized test | administered, scored, and interpreted in the same way no matter when and where it is administered
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| Most quantitative tests are | paper-and-pencil ones
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| Most qualitative researchers | collect data by observation or oral questioning
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| Raw scores | indicate the number of items or points a person got correct
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| Norm-referenced scoring | compares a student's test performance to the performance of other test takers
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| Criterion-referenced scoring | compares a student's test performance to predetermined standards of performance
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| Cognitive tests | measures intellectual processes
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| achievement tests | measure the current status of individuals on school-taught subjects
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| aptitude tests | used to predict how well a test taker is likely to perform in the future
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| general aptitude tests | typically ask the test taker to perform a variety of verbal and nonverbal tasks
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| Affective tests | are assessments designed to measure characteristics related to emotion
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| most affective tests | are non-projective, self report measures in which the individual responds to a series of questions about him or her self
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| Five basic types of scales are used to measure attitudes | 1. Likert scales
2. semantic differential scales
3. rating scales
4. Thurstone scales
5. Guttman scales
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| Attitude scales | ask respondents to state their feelings about various objects, persons, and activities
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| Likert scale | indicate feeling a long a scale such as strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, strongly disagree
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| Semantic differential scales | present a continuum of attitudes on which a respondent selects a position to indicate the strength of attitude. On a scale of 1-5, 5 being the best and 1 being the worst
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| rating scales present | statements that respondents must rate on a continuum from high to low. Rank your feelings from 1-5, 1 being the most important and 5 being the least important
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| Interest inventories | ask individuals to indicate personal likes and dislikes
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| Personality describes | characteristics that represent a persons typical behavior
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| Personality inventories include | lists of statements describing human behaviors, and participants must indicate whether each statement pertains to them.
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| Personality inventories | may be specific to a single trait (introversion-extroversion) or maybe general and measure a number of traits.
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| Use of self-report measures | create a concern whether an individual is expressing his or her true attitude, values, interests, or personality
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| Test bias in both cognitive and affective measures | can distort the data obtained
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| Bias is present | when one's ethnicity, race, gender, language, or religious orientation influences test performances
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| Projective tests | presents ambiguous situation and require the test taker to "project"her or his true feelings on the ambiguous situation
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| Association | most commonly used projective technique and exemplified by the inkblot test
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| Validity | the degree to which a test measure what is supposed to measure
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| Test is | not valid per se, it is valid for a particular interpretation and for a particular group
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| Validity | is measured on a continuum, tests are highly valid, moderately valid, or generally valid
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| Content validity | assesses the degree to which a test measures an intended content area
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| Content validity | is of prime importance for achievement tests
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| Content validity | determined by expert judgment of item and sample validity, not by statistical means
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| Criterion related validity | determined by relating performance on a test to a performance on a second test or other measure
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| Criterion validity has two forms | concurrent and predictive
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| Concurrent validity | degree to which the scores on a test are related to scores on another test administered at the same time or to another measure available at the same time
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| Predictive validity | degree to which scores on a test are related to scores on another test administered in the future
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| Construct validity | measure of whether the construct underlying a variable is actually being measured
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| Construct validity | determined by a series of validation studies that can include content and criterion related approaches
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| Used to determine construct validity | confirmatory and disconfirmatory evidence
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| Consequential validity | concerned with the potential of tests to create harmful effects for test takers
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| Validity of any test or measure | can be diminished by such factors as unclear test directions, ambiguous or difficult test items, subjective scoring, and non-standardized administration procedures
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| Reliability | degree to which a test consistently measure whatever it measures
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| Reliability | is expressed numerically from 0.0 to 1.0; a high coefficient indicates high reliability
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| Measurement error | refers to the inevitable fluctuations in scores due to person and test factors
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| No test is perfectly reliable | but the smaller measurement error the more reliable the test
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| The five general types of reliability | 1. Stability
2. Equivalence
3. Equivalence and stability
4. Internal consistency
5. Scorer/rater
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| Stability | also called test-retest reliability; the degree to which test scores are consistent over time
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| Test-retest | determined by correlating scores from the same test, administered more than once
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| Equivalence | Equivalent-forms reliability; the degree to which two similar forms of a test produce similar scores from a single group of test takers
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| Equivalence and stability reliability | the degree to which two forms of a test given at two different times produce similar scores as measured by correlations
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| Internal consistency | deals with the reliability of a single test taken at one time
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| Internal consistency | measures the extent to which the items in the test are consistent among themselves with the test as a whole
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| Internal consistency | Split half, Kuder-Richardson 20 and 21, and Cronbach's alpha main approaches to obtaining internal consistency
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| Split half reliability | determined by dividing a test into two equivalent halves (e.g., odd items vs. even items), correlating the two halves, and using the Spearman Brown formula to determine the reliability of the whole test
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| Kuder-Richardson reliability | deals with internal consistency of tests that are scored dichotomously (i.e., right, wrong)(multiple choice items, true or false items)
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| Cronbach's alpha | deals with internal consistency of tests that are scored with more than two choices (How many previous research classes have you taken? select among the following 0,1,2,3)
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| Scorer/rater reliability | important when scoring tests that are potentially subjective
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| interjudge reliability | refers to the reliability of two or more independent scorers
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| Intrajudge reliability | refers to the reliability of a single individual's rating over time
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| Standardized achievement tests | high reliabilities
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| Porjective tests | considerably lower reliabilities
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| standard of error or measurement | is an estimate of how often one can expect score errors of a given size
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| small standard error of measurement | indicates high reliability
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| large standard error of measurement | indicates low reliability
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| standard error of measurement | used to estimate the difference between a person's obtained and true scores
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| Big differences | indicate low reliability
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| Metal Measurement Yearbooks (MMYs) | most comprehensive sources of test information available
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| Metal Measurement Yearbooks (MMYs) | provide factual information on all known or revised tests, test reviews, and comprehensive bibliographies and indexes
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| Tests in Print (TIP) | comprehensive bibliography of all tests that have appeared in preceding MMYs.
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| Pro-Ed Publications' Tests | describe more than 2,000 tests in education, psychology, and business
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| Test Critiques | reviews of many of these tests
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| ETS Test Collection Database | describes more than 20,000 tests, published and unpublished
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| Other sources of test information | professional journals and test publishers or distributors
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| Three most important factors to consider in selecting a test | 1. validity
2. reliability
3. ease of use
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| Self constructed tests | should be pilot tested before use to determine validity, reliability, and feasibility
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