Key Points and Key Terms | Definitons and Related Info. |
Melanin | Skin darkening pigment, secreted from cells called melanocytes, stains surrounding cells causing them to darken. |
Amount of _______secreted determines skin color. | Melanin |
Albinism, Vitilago, and Moles/Frreckles are what type of Melanocyte? | Malfunctioning |
Albinism | a person fails to secrete Melanin. Their hair, skin, and colored part of the eye is white. |
Vitilago | Loss of pigment (melanin) in certain areas of the skin. Creating patches of white skin. |
Moles and Freckles | Happens when Melanin stains unevenly becoming concentrated in local areas. |
Carotene | Yellow pigment of the skin, in addition to Melanin. Hidden by the effects of Melanin. |
What in Dermis affects skin color? | Blood |
The affect of skin color lies in what layer of the skin tissue? | Dermis |
Number of skin conditions is caused by? | Blood in the dermis; affecting skin color |
Cyanosis | Poorly oxygenated blood causes the skin to look blue. |
Example of Cyanosis | Person who is embarassaed |
When a person is embarrassed what happens? | Blood vessels in the skin dialate, causing a person to look flushed our blush. |
What happens when a person skin looks Pallar? | Constriction of blood vessels in the skin, and decrease in the amount of oxygenated blood. |
Pallor | causes skin to look pale or ashen color |
Example of Pallor | A person who is scared |
Billirubin | A person who has liver disease can't secrete this pigment. |
Jaundice | Billirubin is deposited into the skin and turns it yellow |
A person with Poorly functioning Adrenal glands, may deposit excess Melanin in the skin creates what type of look? | Bronze Look |
Bruise | Blood has escaped from the blood vessel and clotted under skin |
Ecchymosis | Black and blue area in a person |
Vernix Caseosa | Cheeselike substace covering the skin of a fetus. secreted by sebaceous glands, babies are born with this. |
Psychological reason for skin color changes and Pathological reasons? | Melanin turns it darker-Carotene turns it yellow.......Jaundice, Cyanosis, Ecchymosis |
4 Types of Heat Loss | Radiation, Conduction, Convection, and Evaporation |
Radiation | Loss of heat from warm object (The body) to cooler air surrounding warmer object |
Example of Radiation | Person in cold room |
Conduction | Loss of heat from a warm body to a cooler object in contact with warm bosy |
Example of Conduction | Person sitting on block of ice |
Convection | Loss of heat by air currents moving over surface of the skin. |
Evaporation | When liquid becomes gas |
Example of Evaporation | Alcohol is rubbed into the skin-it evaporates-and cools the skin. |
Epidermis | Thin outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelial tissue. |
Is Epithelium Vascular or Avascular? | Avascular---no blood supply of its own |
What 2 layers are located in the epidermis? | Stratum Germinativuum and Stratum Corneum |
Stratum Germinativum | Lies on top of dermis, access to rich blood supply, cells of this layer continuously divide producing millions of cells each day. |
Stratum Corneum | Surface layer of the epidermis, composed of 30 layers of dead flattened keratinized cells that Slough off through wear and tear |
Dermis | Located under Epidermis. Largest portion of the skin. Composed of dense, fibrous connective tissues |
Collagen and Elastin fibers are surrounded by gel like substances here.... | Dermis |
These make the Dermis Stretchable... | Fibers |
Callus | Increase in epidermis cell division |
Corn | Overgrowth of epidermal cells in conical shape, causes constant rubbing of the toe. |
___% of heat loss occur from the skin? | 80% |
___% of heat loss through respiratory system--lungs and excretory products (urine & feces)? | 20% |
Sebaceous Glands are also known as what glands? | Oil Glands |
Sebaceous Glands | Associated with hair follicles. Found where there is hair on the body. Secrete oily substance called sebum, plays unique role in fetus. |
Pimple | When sebaceous glands become blocked or infected. |
Blackhead | When Sebaceous glands are exposed to air and dries out |
Sudoriferous Glands is also known as what gland? | Sweat gland |
Sudoriferous glands | Located in dermis, have 3 million of these, it has 2 types |
Types of Sudoriferous glands are? | Appocrine gland and Eccrine gland. |
Appocrine Gland | associated with hair follicles, found in axillary and gential area. Respond to emotional stress |
These glands are active when a person is emotionally stressed, frieghtened, in pain, or sexually excited | Appocrine Glands |
Sweat by these glands have no odor | Appocine glands |
Eccrine glands | more numerous and widely distributed of sweat glands. Located throughout the body. Not associated with hair follicles. |
These glands play an important role in Temperature regulation.... | Eccrine glands |
These glands normally found on the upper lip, forehead, back, neck, palms and soles | Eccrine Glands |
These glands make you sweat on hot days, are responsible for sensible prespiration | Eccrine glands |
These glands can produce 1 gallon of sweat per hour (composed of water and sea salts) | Eccrine glands |
Modified sweat glands | Mammory glands and Ceruminous glands |
Mammory glands | Located in the breast and secrete milk |
Ceruminous glands | Found in external auditory canal of the ear, secrete cerumen. |
Neonates | Produces 2/3 of heat that is produced by an adult and looses twice as much. |
Looses heat from large surface area (head) | Neonates |
Neonates | cant shiver. Shiver by process of Non shivering thermogenesis |
Neonate | have brown adipose tissue, especially w/ neck and shoulder area |
BAT | Brown adipose Tissue |
What of the BAT produces heat? | Metabolism |
Neonate | Limited capacity to dissipate heat leaving them at risk for hyperthermia. |
Axial skeleton consist of? | Bones of the skull |
Skull | On top of vertebral column, formed by 2 groups |
The Skull is formed by which 2 groups? | Cranium and Facial Bones |
Cranium | Bony structure, encases and protects brain |
Cranium contain which 3 bones? | frontal, temporal, and parietal bone |
Frontal Bone | Forms forehead, upper part of the bony structure surrounding the eye. |
Parietal Bone | 2 of these form the upper sides of the head and roof of cranial cavity |
Cranial Cavity | Top of the head |
Temporal Bone | 2 of these are on side of the head close to the ears (temples) |
External auditory meatus | opening for the ear |
What is the Zygomatic process? | forms part of the cheek bone |
What is the Styloid process? | sharp projection used as point of attachment for several muscles associated with the tongue and larynx |
What is the Mastoid process? | Forms a point of attachment for some muscles of the neck, each side has bony projections that sit on 1st vertebra column |
Occipital Bone | located at the back and base of cranium, has large hole called foramen magnum. |
What does the Foramen Magnum do? | It allows brain stem to extend downward |
What are Condyles | Bony Projections |
Parts of a long bone | Diaphysis, Epiphysis, Epiphyseal disc, Medullary Cavity, Endosteum, Periosteum, and Articular cartilage |
Joint is also called ______? | Articulation |
Diaphysis | Long shaft of bone, has mostly compact bone, and provides strength |
Epiphysis | Enlarged ends of the bone. Has a thin layer of compact bone that overly spongy bone and is covered by cartilage. |
Epiphyseal Disc | Growing long bone that contain bands of Hyaline cartilage. Near Proximal and Distal end of long bone. Longitudal bone growth occurs here. |
Medullary Cavity | Hollow center of diaphysis. |
Medullary cavaity in Infants.... | cavity is filled w/ red bone marrow for cell production |
Medullary caviaty for Adults | cavaity filled with yellow bone marrow and functions as storage site for fat |
Endosteum | inside the medullary cavity. Type of connective tissue that lines the medullary cavity. |
Periosteum | Tough fibrous connective tissue membrane that cover outside of diaphysis. |
Periosteum | anchors to all bone surfaces, except cartilage |
Periosteum | Protexcts bone and has vessels that has nourishment for the underlying bone |
Articular cartilage | outer surfae of epiphysis. Has smooth and shiny surface, and decreases friction within a joint |
Cervical Vertebrae count.... | C1 through C7 |
Thoracic vertebrae count... | T1 through T12 |
Lumbar vertebrae count... | L1 through L5 |
Vertebral Foramen | opening for the spinal cord and forms the vertebral canal |
Spinous process | Rubs hands down your back to feel this process. Why vertebral column is also known as the spine. |
Vertebra | has barklike lamina |
Spina bifida | failure of lamina to fuse during fetal development |
Vertebral Column | Backbone extends from skull to pelvis, has 26 bones stacked in a column |
Vertebral column performs (4) functions: | Forms support/structure for head and thorax, attachment site for the pelvic girdle, encases the spinal cord and provide flexibility for the body. |
Named according to its location | Vertebral Column |
How many cervical vertebrae is there in the neck region? | 5 |
Large Vertebrae is called what? | Vertebrae Prominens, used as land marks for anatomy |
What is the number/location that describe the Large Vertebrae | C7 |
How many Thoracic Vertebrae is there in the chest region? | 12 |
How many Lumbar Vertebrae are there in the lower back region? | 5 |
Sacrum | Forms posterior wall of the pelvis and has 5 sacral vertebral that fuse here. |
The body (spine) has what 4 normal curves? | Cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral |
Cervical and Lumbar curves do what? | Bend toward the front of the body |
Thoracic and Sacral curves do what? | Bend away from the front of the body |
These curves center head over body, providing balance needed for walking... | Cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral |
Scoliosis | Lateral curvature of the spine. If injured it can compress abdominal organs; diminishing rib cage capacity and breathing. |
Lordosis | Exaggerated lumbar curve, sometimes called sway back |
Kyphosis | Exaggerated thoracic curve that can impair breathing. Sometimes called Hunch back |
Abnormalities of the spine are caused by what? | May be genetic defect, in response to disease or poor posture |
Ossification | Bone formation |
This method begins in late embryotic period, contain formation of fibrous connective tissue and hyaline cartilage (shaped like mini skeleton) | Ossification |
Ossification occurs in what 2 ways? | Intramembranous and Endochondral |
Intramembranous Ossification | In flat bones of skull and has thin layer of connective tissue. |
This type of ossification occurs when Osteoblast migrate to flate bones... | Intramemebranous |
Osteoblast | Bone forming cells |
Osteoblast | Secrete calcium and other minerals into spaces between membranes forming bones |
Endochondral Ossification | occurs in all other bones. Bone tissue replaces cartilage as it matures (replace w/ bone). process continues until all cartilage have been replaced by bone |
Fetal Skeleton | Mostly cartilage |
2 major differences between infant skull and adult skull? | Fontanels and un-fused sutures. Infant skull is not fused like an adult |
Infants skull is covered by what? | Fibrous membrane because its not all bone. |
2 major fontanels | large diamond shaped anterior fontanel & smaller posterior triangular occipital fontanel |
2 smaller fontanels | more lateral, anteriolateral, posteriolateral fontanels. |
By what age does all the fontanels in the infants skull become bone? | 2 years old |
Un fused sutures allows what? | the skull to compress during childbirth |
Microcephalia | sutures of infant skull fuse too early. Preventing growth of the brain. |
This type of condition is characterized by small cranium, restricted brain growth and impaired intellectual function? | Microcephalia |
If the brain bulges outward ...this is a response to what? | increased pressure in the brain |
If the brain looks sunken in...this is a response to what? | presence of dehydration |
Hydrocephalus | water on the brain |
What happens during hydrocephalus? | excessive fluid accumulate in the brain forcing bones apart and there by enlarging the skull |
Smooth Muscle | Found in walls of viscera tubes and passageways. Also known as Visceral muscle, involuntary, non striated, stretchier than skeleton muscle |
Cardiac Muscle | Found only in the heart. Pumps blood throughout the body. Have intercalated disc that promote rapid conduction of electrical signals throughout heart, striated, involuntary, 0 capability for regeneration |
Skeletal Muscle | attached to the bone, voluntary, striated, produce movement and maintain posture, stabilize joints, helps maintain body temp., limited capacity for regeneration. |
Muscles of the face... | frontalis, orbicularis, leutor palpebrae superioris, orbicularis oris, buccinator, zygomaticus, and platysma |
What are the chewing muscles? | Masseter and Temporalis |
Frontalis | flat muscle that cover the frontal bone. raisies eyebrows and wrinkles forehead |
Orbicularis | Sphincter muscle that encircles eye. Control size of opening. closes the eye and assist w/ winking, blinking & sqinting |
Leuator palpebrae superioris | Elevates opens eyelid. origin in bony orbit of the eye, insert into upper eye lid |
orbicularis oris | sphincter muscle that encircles the mouth. forming words. known as the kissing muscle |
Buccinator | origin on maxilla and mandible. inserts into the orbicularis oris. compression of cheeks--sucking, blowing, whistling. |
This muscle may be considered a chewing muscle... | Buccinator--postions food between teeth, helps infants suck |
Zygomatis | smiling muscle, extends from corner of mouth to cheek bone. |
Platysma | originate in fascia of shoulder and anterior chest, insert into tissue of mouth and lower ace. Allows mouth to widen (pout) |
Masseter | origin on maxzilla zygomatic process. contraction closes the jaw. |
Temporalis | fan shaped muscle, extend from flat portion of temporal bone to mandible |
Muscles of the shoulders and arm... | Tapezius, serratus anterior, pectoralis major, latissmus dorsi, deltoid, teres major and rotator cuff |
Trapezius | allow for shrugging, contracts and move clavicle and scapula |
Serratus Anterior | located on sides of chest. extend from upper ribs. has jagged shape. the shoulder are lowered and arms push forward (pushing a cart) |
Pectoralis major | Large blood muscle helps form anterior chest wall. Contraction moves arms across in front of chest. (pointing to object in front of you) adducts/rotate arm medially and gym excercises are meant to hypertrophy these. |
Latissmus dorsi | Middle, lower back region. lowers shoulders and brings arms back. (pointing behind you) |
Deltoid | form round part of shoulder and shoulder pad. adducts arm raising it to horizontal position (scarecrow position) |
Teres major | long round muscle, extend arm and shoulder joint. assist w/ medial rotation and adduction of arm and shoulder joint |
Rotator cuff | Impingement syndrome or rotator cuff injury |
Rotator cuff has 4 groups of muscles... | subscalpularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor |
The 4 rotator cuff muscles form what? | cap and cuff for stabilizing joint muscle |
Triceps brachii | muscles that support weight of the body when doing push ups or walking on crutches |
Triceps brachii | called boxers muscle, lies along posterior surface of humerus and ulna. |
Triceps brachii | Prime mover of extension of forearm at elbow joint |
Biceps brachii | anterior surface of humerus. Acts synergentically w/ brachialis and brachioradiali to flex arm. |
Prime movers for flexing arm | Biceps brachii and Brachialis |
When asked to make a muscle this muscle is more visible.... | Biceps brachii |
Pronator Muscle | anterior forearm--palms down is achieved by this muscle |
Pronation | palms down |
Supinator Muscle | posterior forearm and cause palm up |
Some of the longest, strongest bones in the body... | Leg, thigh and foot |
Muscles that move the thigh at the hip that's attached to the pelvic girdle.... | Gluteal muscles, illiopsoas, tensor fascia latae, and group of adductor muscles |
Types of adductor muscles | adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, gracilis and pectineus muscles |
Gluteal Muscles | Located on posterior surface. contains the gluteus maximus, minimus, medias |
Illiopsoas | located near groin. contraction rotates/flexes thigh laterally |
Tensor fascia latae | lateral thigh. contraction flexes and abducts thigh at hip joint |
Group of adductor muscles | Located on medial surface of thigh. they press the thighs together |
Other types of muscles that move the thigh... | quadraceps, femorous, Sartorius and hamstrings |
Muscles that move the leg | Extensor and flexor |
Quadraceps femoris | located on anterior thigh, most powerful muscle in the body, prime mover for extension of leg at the knee, like kicking football |
Quadraceps femoris has 4 parts that cause extension of the leg | Castus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis, and vastus femoris |
Hamstring | Located on posterior surface of the thigh, extend from ischium to tibia, flex at the knee, extend the thigh. strong tendons can be felt behind here |
Muscles that move the foot | Located on anterior, lateral, posterior, surfaces of the leg |
Muscles that move the foot | Tibialis anterior, peroneous lpngus muscle, Gastrocnemius and soleus, Sartorius, and calcaneal or Achilles tendon |
Tibialis Anterior | Located on anterior surface, causes dorsiflexion and inversion of the foot (plantar flexion) |
Peroneous Longus Muscle | located on lateral surface, everts (turn outward) the foot, support arch of foot, and assist w/ plantar flexion |
Gastrocnemius and Soleus | Major muscles on Posterior surfaces of leg and form 1/ of the calf leg |
Sartorius | Long muscle that crosses obliquely over anterior thigh, origin is on the illium; inserts on tibia, allows you to cross your legs, flex leg at knee and abducts laterally to rotate thigh |
Calcaneal or Achilles tendon | Strongest tendon in the body, contraction causes plantar flexion, allows us to stand on tip toes |
Motor Unit | Consist of nerve and inner muscle fibers, single neuron. strength of contraction is determined by a number of these |
Recruitment | The more of these activated the greater force of contraction. |
Chemoreceptor | change in chemical concentration of substance. responsible for taste and smell |
Pain receptors aka nociceptors | Respond to tissue damage and pain |
Thermoreceptor | Respond to a change in temperature such as heat and cold. |
Mechanoreceptors | respond to changes in pressure or movement of fluids. responsible for hearing and equillibrium |
Photoreceptors | Respond to light and energy. responsible for sight, rods, cones, and the eye |
Touch receptor or tactile receptor | Found in the skin, allows us to feel cats fur. found in lips-tips of fingers, toes, tongue, penis and clitoris |
Pressure receptor | Located in the skin in subcutaneous tissue, and is timulated by heavy ball in your hand |
Propriception receptors | sense of orientation or position, allows us to locate body part w/out looking, and is located in muscles, tendons, joints and inner ear |
Photoreceptors | Stimulated by light and produces nerve impulse. consist of rods and cones |
Rods | Help to see in the dark (black& white) |
Cones | Helps to see color and clear image |
3 layers of the eye | sclera, retina, and choroid |
Sclera | Tough outer layer on posterior eyeball, forward extension becomes cornea (colored part of eye) extrinsic eye muscles attach here, contain contents of eye and shapes it. |
Extrinsic eye muscle | moves eye left to right |
Choroid | middle layer in posterior eyeball, forward extension become ciliary body and iris, highly vascular to nourish retina. iris is located here |
pupil | opening or hole in middle of iris |
Iris | regulate the amount of light entering the eye |
Retina | Inner layer of posterior eyeball, site of photoreceptors, optic disc, contains high concentration of cones. fovea is found here |
Fovea | contain so many cones its considered area for most acute vision |
Optic disc | Optic nerve w/ no rods or cones, images are not seen, calling it the blind spot |
Posterior cavity of the eyeball... | located between lens and retina. Contain citreous humor |
Anterior cavity of the eyeball... | Located between lens and cornea. Contain aqueaous humor |
Formation and Drainage of Aqueous humor | Formed by ciliary body, circulate through pupil behind cornea and drains through canals od schlemm |
Extrinsic eye Muscles | Move eyeball in bony orbit |
Intrinsic eye Muscles | move structures within eyeball (iris and ciliary muscles) responsible for pupil dialation |
Extrinsic muscles of the eye consist of: | 4 rectus muscles, 2 obliques, and primary innervation from CNIII |
Rectus muscles | moves eyes up, down, side to side |
Oblique muscles | rolls eyes |
CNIII considered the... | occulomotor nerve (cranial nerve) |
Circular muscle contain | Miosis (pupils constrict) and Muscarinic receptors |
Radial Muscle contain | Mydriasis (pupils dialate) and alpha 1 receptors |
Muscarinic receptors control what? | Size of pupils in control of how much light enters the eye |
Ciliary Muscles | causes lens to change shape |
Refraction pertains to... | the lens |
During process of refraction of the lens | Ciliary muscles pull suspensory ligaments, ligaments pulls on lens; changing its shape |
Refraction | Bending light waves to focus on retina, lens primary refracting structure |
Errors of refraction | Myopia, Hyperopia, and Astigmatism |
Myopia | focal point in front of retina |
Hyperopia | focal point behind retina |
Astigmatism | results in irregular curved cornea |
Accomodation | ability of lens to change shape to focus on a close object |
Convergence | eyes move medially toward nose (cross eyes) |
Emmetropia | ability of eye to refract light w/ out assistance of corrective lens |
Presbyopia | W/ age lens looses its ability to change shape, diminishing ability to accommodate for close objects |
Visual Pathway | pathway from retina to brain |
Visual pathway--Optic Chiasm | Brain sees 1 image |
Pathway of light--how it occurs | cornea-aqueous humor-pupil-lens-vitreous humor-rods and cones |
Pathway of nerve impulses | Rods and cones-CNII-occipital lobe |
3 parts of the ear | External, middle and inner |
External Ear | part of ear you can see, composed of auricle and external auditory canal |
Auricle (pinna) | Latin for wing, covered by loose fitting skin, gathers sound waves |
External Auditory Canal | Passageway for sound waves to enter the ear. hollowed out of temporal bone 1 inch long 1/2 inch wife |
Tempanic membrane separate what from what? | External ear from middle ear |
Middle ear | small air filled chamber, located n tympanic membrane. contain tiny bones, small muscles and Eustachian tube. has connective tissue. vibrate in response to vibrations |
Eustachian tube | passageway that connects middle ear to pharynx or throat (aka auditory tube) |
3 tiny bones in middle ear | malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stappes (stirrups) |
Inner ear | intricate system. consist of tubes and passageways hollowed out of temporal bone. has 3 parts |
3 parts of the inner ear | vestibule, semicircular canals and cchlea |
Vestibules and Semicircular canals | both concerned with balance |
Cochlea | concerned with hearing, nail shape, part of bony labyrinth (network of tubes), sends nerve impulses |
Organ of Corti | Tiny hairs on receptors (cells), stimulated by bending of hairs |
Pathway of vibrations. | Sound waves-tympanic membrane-ossicles-oval window-organ of corti |
Pathway of nerve impulses | organ of corti-CNIII (cochlear branch)-temporal lobe |
2 characteristics of sensation. | Projection and adaptation |
Projection | Brain refers info back to source |
Adaptation | Sensory becomes less, w/ continuous stimulation it becomes less responsive. |
Primary visual structures of the eye are? | The eye and Visual pathway |
Visual accessory structures | Eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, eyelashes, lacrimal apparatus, extrinsic eye muscle |
Eyebrows | keep sweat out of eyes-somewhat like a shade |
Eyelids | protect eye, wash tears away from it |
Conjunctiva | White of the eye, lines inner surface of eyelid |
Eyelashes | Lines edge of eyelid, traps dust |
Lacrimal apparatus | Ducts for tears, upper lateral part of orbit |
Extrinsic eye muscle | Moves eye left |
Adaptation | Sensory becomes less, w/ continuous stimulation it becomes less responsive. |
Primary visual structures of the eye are? | The eye and Visual pathway |
Visual accessory structures | Eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, eyelashes, lacrimal apparatus, extrinsic eye muscle |
Eyebrows | keep sweat out of eyes-somewhat like a shade |
Eyelids | protect eye, wash tears away from it |
Conjunctiva | White of the eye, lines inner surface of eyelid |
Eyelashes | Lines edge of eyelid, traps dust |
Lacrimal apparatus | Ducts for tears, upper lateral part of orbit |
Extrinsic eye muscle | Moves eye left |
Atlas | C1 first cervical vertebrae, has no body but depressions. allows us to nod yes |
Axis | C2 Second cervical vertebrae, projections called the dens, acts as pivot or swivel for atlas. allows us to nod no (side to side) |