Question | Answer |
Hierarchy for Organisms | KPCOFGS Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species |
Prokarotic | single cells, NO nucleus or cellular organelles. Ex: Bacteria/Eubacteria/Archaebacteria |
Eurkaryotic | multi cellular, have nucleus, - plants, animals, fungi, protista |
Mutations | source of variation, in DNA, most are harmful |
Adaptive Traits ( non harmful mutations) | gives an individual an advantage to survive, ie: sickle cell survives malaria; certain bacteria only live in hot environments |
Evolution | occurs in population, not person, occurs in DNA. Ex: smaller jaw, obsolete appendix, little toe shrinking, |
Artificial Selection | breeders favor some traits, breed them. Size of tomatoes, tangelos, labradoodles |
Natural Selection | "survival of the fittest" = whether or not ones genes are included in the next generation |
Scientific Method | 1 Observe
2 Develop Hypothesis
3 Make a prediction
4 Test
5 Analyze the results / Conclusion |
Element | fundamental form of matter, can't be broken apart naturally |
Biological CHNOPS | most common elements in a living organisms: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfer |
Atoms | smallest particles that retain properties of an element. Have Protons, Neutrons, Electrons. |
Atomic Number | the number of protons in an element |
Mass Number | the number of protons AND neutrons |
Ionic Bond | 2 atoms exchange electrons, transferred. *Broken with water* |
Covalent Bond | 2 atoms share electrons |
Hydrogen Bond | occur between hydrogen and nitrogen or hydrogen and oxygen. *Within ajacent molecules. Weak individually, Very Strong in large numbers. **The only way to break a hydrogen bond is with heat*** |
Ions | formed when an element gains or loses e- making it + or - |
90% of cells are | water |
Water | Polar. Solvent. Cohesive (molecules bound tightly). Temperature Stabilizing Effect. |
Specific Heat | amount of energy needed to change one gram one degree celsius |
Hydrophilic | Love water. Polar, dissolves in water .. sugar, salt. |
Hydrophobic | Non polar, doesn't dissolve in water .. oil. |
pH scale | the measure of hydrogen ions in a solution |
Acidic | more H+, donate H+, lower pH, produce H when react with metal, OJ, tomatoes, coffee ; begins with H = acid; HCl |
Basic | fewer H+, accept H+, when electrolyzed they release -OH, cleaners, milk of magnesium, bleach ; ends with OH = base; NaOH |
All life is made of Carbon | 6 on periodic table, 6 protons, 6 neutrons, mass number = 12. |
Neutrons are sticky | they're inbetween the protons to keep the nucleus together |
What kind of bonds does Carbon choose ? | covalent, can bond with itself - single, double, or triple bonds. |
Lipids | insulation, energy ; cholesteral, waxes, fats. Cell membranes are two layers of lipids. |
Saturated/Unsaturated | Sat - single bonds Unsat - one or more double bonds |
Carbohydrates (-ose) | used for energy, respiration, and make up exoskeletons, covalent bonds |
Monosaccharides | dioxyribose |
Polysaccharides | ribose |
Proteins | form blood, hair, nails, muscles and enzymes. ** DNA makes protein. |
Amino acids | 20 naturally occur. Peptide bonds. |
AA Primary / Secondary | sequence of AA / twist, pleated sheet, alphahelix |
AA Tertiary / Quaternary | twisted bonded shape / 4 tertiaries |
Cells are measured in | micrometers, their parts are measured in nanometers |
Why aren't cells bigger? | They rely on the cell membrane to transport everything. Oxygen can't diffuse that far. **Surface Area to Volume Ratio ** |
Cell Theory | 1 - All living things are made of cells. 2 - the cell is the smallest unit having the properties of life. 3 - Continuity of life arises directly from growth and cell division of single cells. |
Three Basic Parts of a Cell | 1) Cell Membrane (2) DNA containing region (3) Cytoplasm containing ribosomes (to transcribe DNA) |
Cell Membrane | made of phospholipids, double membrane, hydrophillic heads with hydrophobic tails. They are fluid mosiacs. |
Chromatin | All DNA associated proteins in the nucleus |
ER | bends proteins into shape |
Golgi body | transports protein out of the cell |
Lysosomes | waste disposal |
Vacuoles | *in plants* controls the water levels |
Mitochondrion | site of respiration, makes ATP |
Cristae | squiggle in mitochondra |
Chloroplasts | *in plants* contains thylakoids, site of photosynthesis |
Buffers | stop a change in pH, soaks up H+, keeps solution neutral, blood is a buffer |
The higher things go, the _____ potential energy it hass | greater |
Energy is the | capacity to do work |
Energy cannot be | created nor destroyed |
Energy flows from | high to low, down the concentration gradient, with heat being the least useful form |
Every conversion of energy releases | heat. |
As a system loses energy | it becomes more disorganized. |
Entropy | the measure of disorder of a system |
ATP | made of Adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphates |
Each glucose produces, how many ATP? | 36 |
Phosphates are bound by | high energy bonds |
Metabolism | is directional, down the concentration gradient, releases energy/heat. It either makes something ~ photosynthesis, or uses something up ~ respiration |
Endergonic | the rxn needs a kick start |
Exergonic | spontaneous and release energy. |
Exothermic Rxn | gives off more energy than it uses to start |
Endothermic Rxn | uses more energy to begin than it gives off |
Enzymes | lowers necessary activation energy, can be reused, specific to certain parts of the reactions, |
All enzymes are | proteins. They only work in certain temperatures, pHs and salinities. |
Heterotrophs | feed on other things |
Autotrophs | produce their own food |
1st stage of photosynthesis | Requires light. Water is split by light, drives out e-, when it goes back to ground state, it releases energy, the e- get caught in the chlorophyll, finally releasing oxygen, occurs in and out of the membranes of the chloroplasts stacks. |
2nd stage of photosynthsis | independent of light. |
Fermentation | yeast cells > only produce 2 ATP per 1 glucose, an aerobic conditions; produces alcohol |
Aerobic Respiration | mitochondria releases 36 ATP |
Electron transport chains | (photosynthesis and aerobic respiration) yields 32 ATP |
Lactic acid | builds up in muscles, lack of oxygen, cramps |
Why do cells divide? | to allow us to be more complex, to grow, to reproduce offspring ;; to repair and replace dead cells |
Prokaryotes reproduce... | through fission, ~asexual~ |
Eukaryotes reproduce.. | by mitosis and meiosis ;; sexual |
Chromosomes | very tightly coiled DNA, coiled around histones |
Humans have ___ chromosomes | 46 with 23 pairs. |
22 pairs are | autosomal ; one pair controls our sexQuaterary |
Mitosis | chromosomes duplicate, two daughter cells just like parent cell |
Cancer is | cell division our of control |
Alleles | different forms of the gene |
Meiosis | Parent is diploid, chromosomes duplicate, cell splits, then splits again. 4 haploids are produced. |
Nondisjunction | occurs when incorrect # of chromosomes end up in a gamete cell |
Monohybrid | one allele pair |
Homozygous | the alleles are the same |
Heterozygous | the alleles are different |
Back cross/test cross | uses a double recessive to test pure breed |
DNA is made up of | nucleotides |
Nucleotides are | three molecules -- phosphate, pentose sugar, nitrogen base |
Purines | two rings, adenine, guanine |
Pyrimidines | one ring, thymine, cytosine, uracil |
# of Hydrogen bonds btwn A&T | 2 |
# of Hydrogen bonds btwn C&G | 3 |
These check to be sure there were no mistakes made in replication | Enzymes |
Replication | DNA makes DNA |
Transcription | DNA makes RNA |
Translation | RNA makes protein |
RNA | a copy of one side, single strand, has NO thymine, Uracil instead, |
3 nucleotide bases = | a codon |
AUG | is the start codon |
mRNA, rRNA, tRNA | messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA |
Deletion in transcriptions | can cause the ribosome to miss the cue to start making proteins, and certain proteins are left out. *deletions cause frameshift mutations* Ex: cystic fibrosis |