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20- Respiratory
Chapter 20- Respiratory Anatomy and Physiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| contamination of the respiratory system is prevented by a series of filtration mechanisms that constitute what? | respiratory defense system |
| What kind of epithelium lines the nasal cavity, the superior portion of the pharynx, the trachea, bronchi, and large bronchioles? | pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium |
| The beating of cilia sweeps mucus and any trapped debris or microorganisms toward where? | pharynx |
| The flow of mucus from the respiratory system to the pharynx is described as what? | mucus escalator |
| the lamina propria is the underlying layer of which type of tissue that supports the respiratory epithelium? | areolar tissue |
| What type of cells divide to replace damaged or aged cells in the respiratory epithelium? | stem cells |
| What is the most common lethal inherited disease among Caucasians of Northern European descent? | Cystic fibrosis |
| Why is cystic fibrosis the most common lethal inherited disease? | It causes abnormally thick and sticky mucus in the conducting portions of the respiratory tract and bacteria may colonize the stagnant mucus. |
| What type of epithelium lines the inferior portions of the pharynx? | stratified squamous epithelium |
| In the finer bronchioles, the epithelium becomes what kind of epithelium? | cuboidal |
| The gas exchange surfaces consist of what type of epithelium? | simple squamous epithelium |
| the passageways that carry air to and from the gas exchange surfaces of the lungs make up what? | the respiratory tract |
| what begins at the entrance to the nasal cavity and extends to fine passageways? | conducting portion |
| what includes the most delicate bronchioles and the alveoli where gas exchange occurs between air and blood? | respiratory portion |
| what filters, warms, and humidifies incoming air? | upper respiratory tract |
| what conducts air to and from the gas exchange surfaces? | lower respiratory tract |
| What part of the nose is supported by the anterior portion of the nasal septum? | bridge |
| What is the bridge of the nose formed of? | hyaline cartilage |
| what are the small, elastic pieces that extend laterally from the bridge of the nose and keep the external nares open? | nasal cartilages |
| Air normally enters through paired _____ which open into the nasal cavity. | external nares |
| to pass from the external nares to the internal nares, air flows between adjacent _____, through the superior, middle, and inferior meatuses. | conchae |
| What does meatus mean? | a passage |
| What is formed by the fusion of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid and the vomer? | nasal septum |
| What divides the nasal cavity into left and right portions? | nasal septum |
| What bones form the lateral and superior walls of the nasal cavity contain paranasal sinuses? | maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid |
| Where are mucous secretions produced to keep the surfaces of the nasal cavity moist and clean? | paranasal sinuses |
| what is a chamber shared by the digestive and respiratory systems? | pharynx |
| What is the superior portion of the pharynx that is located between the soft palate and the internal nares? | nasopharynx |
| What extends between the soft palate and the base of teh tongue at the level of the hyoid bone? | oropharynx |
| At the boundary between the nasopharynx and the oropharynx, the epithelium changes from _____ to ______. | pseudostratified columnar; stratified squamous |
| What includes the portion of the pharynx between the hyoid bone and the entrance to the larynx and esophagus? | laryngopharynx |
| What type of epithelium is the laryngopharynx lined with? | stratified squamous |
| What conducts air toward the lungs? | trachea |
| What is the trachea also known as? | windpipe |
| The nasal cavity opens into the nasopharynx through a connection known as the what? | internal nares |
| What is the space contained within the flexible tissues of the nose? | nasal vestibule |
| What forms the floor of the nasal cavity and separates it form the oral cavity? | hard palate |
| What extends posterior to the hard palate? | soft palate |
| inhaled air leaves the pharynx and enters the larynx through a narrow opening called what? | glottis |
| What is a cartilagenous structure that surrounds and protects the glottis? | larynx |
| What is also known as the voice box? | larynx |
| What contains an extensive network of large and highly expandable veins that can release heat like a radiator? | lamina propria |
| what consists of three large unpaired cartilages and three small paired cartilages? | larynx |
| What are the large unpaired cartilages of the larynx? | epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage |
| What projects superior to the glottis and forms a lid over it to prevent the entry of liquids and solid food into the respiratory tract? | epiglottis |
| What forms most of the anterior and lateral walls of the larynx? | thyroid cartilage |
| What is the prominent anterior surface of the thyroid cartilage called? | laryngeal prominence |
| What has a greatly expanded posterior portion that provides support to the trachea? | cricoid cartilage |
| What ligaments extend between the thyroid cartilage and the arytenoid cartilages? | vestibualar and vocal |
| What are long, curved, and lite within folds of tissue that extend between the lateral surface of each arytenoid cartilage and the epiglottis? | cuneiform cartilage |
| What articulates with the arytenoid cartilages? | corniculate cartilage |
| What cartilages function in the opening and closing of the glottis and the production of sound? | corniculate and arytenoid |
| What are small, paired, and articulate with the superior surface of the cricoid cartilage? | arytenoid cartilage |
| The opening or closing of the glottis involves what kind of movement of the arytenoid cartilages? | rotational |
| The opening or closing of the glottis involves rotational movements of what? | arytenoid cartilage |
| When the glottis is open, air passing through it vibrates what? | vocal folds |
| What are tissue folds that contain elastic vocal ligaments? | vocal folds |
| The vibration of the vocal folds produces sound waves, and the pitch of the sound produced depends on what? | diameter, length, and tension in the vocal folds |
| The vocal folds lie inferior to what? | vestibular folds |
| Vocal folds are also known as what? | vocal cords |
| Vestibular ligaments lie within what? | vestibular folds |
| What helps prevent foreign objects from entering the glottis and contacting the more delicate vocal folds? | vestibular folds |
| Sound production at the larynx is called what? | phonation |
| The modification of sound by structures such as the tongue, teeth, and lips is called what? | articulation |
| what is a tough, flexible tube with a diameter of about 2.5 cm? | trachea |
| Within the mediastinum, the trachea branches to form what? | right and left primary bronchi |
| What connects the ends of each C-shaped tracheal cartilage? | elastic ligament and trachealis muscle |
| What kind of stimulation relaxes the trachea muscle? | sympathetic |
| The trachea contains how many tracheal cartilages? | 15-20 |
| What stiffens the tracheal walls and protects the airway, and also prevent its collapse or over expansion as pressures change within the respiratory system? | tracheal cartilages |
| Which primary bronchus is larger? | right |
| Why can the posterior tracheal wall easily distort when large masses of food pass along the esophagus? | the tracheal cartilages are incomplete posteriorly |
| List the air conduction passageways in the lower respiratory tract in order | trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, pulmonary lobule, alveolus |
| What is a meshwork of dense connective tissue that fixes the positions of the bronchi, major nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatics? | root of the lung |
| The walls of what lack cartilages but contain relatively thick layers of ____. | bronchioles; smooth muscle |
| Smooth muscle tone has a significant effect on ______ and the resistance to ______. | bronchial diameter; airflow |
| Sympathetic activation leads to what? | bronchodilation |
| What kind of activation leads to bronchoconstriction? | parasympathetic |
| Extreme bronchoconstriction may occur during allergic reactions such as what? | asthma |
| Each tertiary bronchus ultimately supplies air to a single what? | bronchopulmonary segment |
| What is a specific region of one lung? | bronchopulmonary segment |
| The branching pattern of bronchi and bronchioles is often called what? | bronchial tree |
| What is a groove that allows passage of the primary bronchi, pulmonary vessels, nerves, and lymphatics? | hilum |
| The conducting and respiratory portions of the respiratory tract are continuous and end in air sacs called what? | alveoli |
| Each alveolus is surrounded by an extended capillary network that receives blood from a branch of a _______ and discharges blood into a tributary of a _______. | pulmonary artery; pulmonary vein |
| _____ of elastic fibers during exhalation reduces the size of the alveoli and helps push air out of the lungs | recoil |
| The alveolar epithelium is primarily what kind of epithelium? | simple squamous |
| Alveolar capillaries ____ when oxygen levels are high, and ____ when oxygen levels are low. | dilate; constrict |
| ______ are scattered among squamous cells | Type II pneumocytes |
| What cells produce surfactant? | Type II pneumocytes |
| What is an oily secretion containing a mixture of phospholipids and proteins that forms a superficial coating over a thin layer of water? | surfactant |
| What kind of squamous epithelial cells are unusually thin and delicate? | Type I pneumocytes |
| In which type of cell are the sites of gas diffusion? | Type I pneumocytes |
| What roams and patrols the epithelial surface of Type I pneumocytes? | Alveolar macrophages |
| Gas exchange occurs across what at each alveolus? | respiratory membrane |
| what includes all the processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body's interstitial fluids and the external environment? | external respiration |
| what occurs across the respiratory membrane between alveoli and capillaries, and across capillary walls between blood and other tissues? | gas diffusion |
| what is the absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide by tissue cells? | internal respiration. |
| what involves the physical movement of air into and out of the lungs? | pulmonary ventilation |
| breathing is also known as what? | pulmonary ventilation |
| what is the primary function of pulmonary ventilation? | to maintain adequate alveolar ventilation |
| what is the movement of air into and out of the alveoli? | alveolar ventilation |
| alveolar ventilation prevents the buildup of what in the alveoli? | carbon dioxide |
| which law states that pressure is inversely proportional to volume? | boyle's law |
| when the diaphragm contracts, it tenses and moves in which direction? | inferiorly |
| at the start of a breath, how are the pressures inside and outside the thoracic cavity related? | they are identical |
| an injury allowing air into the pleural cavity breaks the bond between the parietal and visceral pleura causing the lung to collapse. What is the term used to describe this? | atelectasis |
| the direction of airflow is determined by the difference between atmospheric pressure and what? | intrapulmonary pressure |
| what is the pressure inside the respiratory tract called? | intrapulmonary pressure |
| in which direction does positive intrapulmonary pressures take air? | out of the lungs |
| in which direction does negative intrapulmonary pressure take air? | into the lungs |
| what is the amount of air moved into the lungs during inhalation and out of the lungs during exhalation? | tidal volume |
| what is the measure of normal atmospheric pressure in mm Hg? | 760 mm Hg |
| What is the measure of normal atmospheric pressure at sea level in psi? | 15 psi |
| What are the primary muscles involved in inhalation? | diaphragm and the external intercostals |
| the contraction of which muscles assists the external intercostal muscles in elevating the ribs? | accessory muscles |
| contraction of which muscles elevates the ribs? | external intercostals |
| the contraction of which group of muscles contributes to roughly 25% to the volume of air in the lungs at rest? | primary inspiratory muscles |
| contraction of what muscle flattens the floor of the thoracic cavity? | diaphragm |
| What is responsible for roughly 75% of the air movement in normal breathing at rest? | contraction of the diaphragm |
| What two muscles depress the ribs and reduce the width and depth of the thoracic cavity? | internal intercostals and transversus thoracis muscles |
| What is the amount of air that you can breathe in over and above the tidal volume? | inspiratory reserve volume |
| what is the amount of air you move into or out of your lungs during a single respiratory cycle under resting conditions? | tidal volume |
| what is the amount of air that you can voluntarily expel after you have completed a normal, quiet respiratory cycle? | expiratory reserve volume |
| what is the amount of air that would remain in your lungs if they were allowed to collapse? | minimal volume |
| What is the range of minimal volume? | 30-120 mL |
| what is the term used to describe the total volume of your lungs? | total lung capacity |
| what is term used to describe the amount of air that remains in your lungs even after a maximal exhalation? | residual volume |
| what is the term used to describe the amount of air remaining in your lungs after you have completed a quiet respiratory cycle? | functional residual capacity |
| what is the term used to describe the maximum amount of air that you can move into or out of your lungs in a single respiratory cycle? | vital capacity |
| what is the term used to describe the amount of air that you can draw into your lungs after you have completed a quiet respiratory cycle? | inspiratory capacity |
| What is the total lung capacity averages for males and females? | 6000; 4200 |
| The FRC is the sum of what? | expiratory reserve and residual volume |
| The total lung capacity is calculated by adding what? | vital capacity and residual volume |
| The vital capacity is calculated by adding what? | expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and inspiratory reserve volume |
| The inspiratory capacity is calculated by adding what? | tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume |
| the respiratory system adjusts what over a broad range to meet the oxygen demands of the body? | pulmonary ventilation |
| when you are exercising at peak levels, the amount of air moving into and out of the respiratory tract can be ___ times the amount moved at rest. | 50 |
| what is the term used for the number of breaths you take each minute? | respiratory rate |
| the normal respiratory rate of a resting adult ranges from __ to __ each minute. | 12; 18 |
| What is the ratio of normal adults breaths per heartbeat? | 1:4 |
| children breathe at a rate of about __ to __ breaths per minute. | 18-20 |
| What value is represented by multiplying the respiratory rate by the tidal volume? | respiratory minute volume |
| What is the equation used to calculate respiratory minute volume? | respiratory rate times tidal volume |
| what is the term used for the amount of air reaching the alveoli each minute? | alveolar ventilation |
| why is the alveolar ventilation less than the respiratory minute volume? | some of the air never reaches the alveoli, but remains in the conducting portion of the lungs |
| what is the anatomic dead space? | the conducting passageways that keeps air from reaching the alveoli |
| why is the composition of the gas arriving in the alveoli significantly different from that of the surrounding atmosphere? | inhaled air always mixed with used air in the conducting passageways on its way to the exchange surfaces |
| the air in the alveoli contains less _____ and more _____ than does atmospheric air. | oxygen; carbon dioxide |
| whenever the demand for oxygen increases, ____ and _____ must be increased. | tidal volume; respiratory rate |
| what is the pressure contributed by a single gas in a mixture of gases? | partial pressure |
| all the partial pressures added together equal the total pressure exerted by the gas mixture is known as what? | dalton's law |
| at a given temperature, the amount of a particular gas in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas is known as what? | henry's law |
| how is each oxygen molecule entering peripheral tissues balanced? | by an oxygen molecule absorbed at the alveoli, and the absorbed oxygen molecule will be replaced in the next respiratory cycle |
| if tissue oxygen demand accelerates, what must happen? | the respiratory rate and tidal volume must increase |
| oxygen molecules are bound specifically to what? | iron ions in the center of heme units |
| what does a hemoglobin molecule consist of? | four globular protein subunits |
| each hemoglobin molecule can reversibly bind up to four molecules of oxygen, forming what? | oxyhemoglobin |
| the percentage of heme units containing bound oxygen at any given moment is called what? | hemoglobin saturation |
| what shows the saturation of hemoglobin at different partial pressures of oxygen? | oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve |
| why does blood pH have a direct effect on the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve? | the shape of hemoglobin molecules changes as the number of bound oxygen molecules increases and these changes affect its affinity for oxygen |
| what is the effect that describes how blood pH affects the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation? | bohr effect |
| hemoglobin releases ____ oxygen if the pH increases. | less |
| hemoglobin releases ____ oxygen if the pH decreases. | more |
| The ____ the temperature, the more readily hemoglobin gives up its oxygen reserves. | higher |
| RBCs do not contain ____. | mitochondria |
| RBSs generate ATP through ____. | glycolysis |
| The metabolic pathways involved in glycolysis generate the compound ______. | 2,3-biphosphoglycerate |
| for any partial pressure of oxygen, the higher the concentration of BPG, the ___ oxygen will be released by the Hb molecules. | more |
| BPG production _____ as RBCs age. | decreases |
| When BPG levels get too low, what happens? | hemoglobin becomes firmly bound to the available oxygen. |
| carbon dioxide is generated by what? | aerobic metabolism in peripheral tissues |
| After entering the bloodstream, what happens to the CO2 molecules? | 1. converted to carbonic acid. 2. bound to the protein in Hb. 3. dissolves in plasma |
| When 23% of CO2 is bound to Hb, what happens? | The CO2 is reversibly bound to amino groups, resulting in carbaminohemoglobin. |
| The 70% of CO2 is converted to carbonic acid through what? | carbonic anhydrase |
| Carbonic acid molecules dissociate into what? | hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion |
| most of the hydrogen ions bind to hemoglobin molecules, forming what? | HbH+, which acts as a buffer. |
| When the bicarbonate ions are ready to leave the RBC, what happens? | They exchange with a chloride ion so Cl- goes into the RBC and bicarb goes into the plasma. |
| What is the exchange of bicarb and chloride ions from the RBC called? | Chloride shift |
| What happens to every oxygen molecule entering peripheral tissue? | It is balanced by an oxygen molecule absorbed at the alveoli. |
| The equilibrium between oxygen absorption and oxygen use is disturbed when what happens? | tissue oxygen demand increases |
| If the respiratory rate and tidal volume do not increase, the alveolar PO2 will _____. | steadily decline. |
| what is an indication of the lungs expandability? | compliance |
| what is caused by inadequate surfactant production? | respiratory distress syndrome |
| what does respiratory distress syndrome lead to ? | alveolar collapse on exhalation. |
| what is an indication of how much force is required to inflate or deflate the lungs? | resistance |
| what is a general term indicating a progressive disorder of the airways that restricts airflow and reduces alveolar ventilation? | COPD |
| What does COPD stand for? | chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |
| what is a condition characterized by conducting passageways that are extremely sensitive to irritation? | asthma |
| in asthma, the airways respond to irritation by constricting what specifically? | smooth muscles along the bronchial tree. |
| what is a long-term inflammation and swelling of the bronchial lining? | chronic bronchitis |
| the combination of widespread edema and bluish discoloration has led to what descriptive term? | blue bloaters |
| what causes the bluish discoloration is chronic bronchitis patients? | low blood oxygen levels |
| what is a chronic, progressive condition characterized by shortness of breath and an inability to tolerate physical exertion? | emphysema |
| what is the underlying problem for emphysema patients? | destruction of alveolar surfaces and inadequate surface area of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange. |
| what is the term used to describe the pink discoloration for patients with emphysema? | pink puffers |
| The most basic level of respiratory control involves what specifically? | pacemaker cells in the MO |
| what sets the pace of respiration by adjusting the activities of pacemaker cells and coordinating the activities of additional respiratory muscles? | respiratory rhythmicity centers |
| each respiratory rhythmicity center can be divided into what? | dorsal respiratory group and ventral respiratory group |
| what contains neurons that control lower motor neurons that innervate the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm? | inspiratory center of the DRG |
| what center functions in every respiratory cycle? | inspiratory center of the DRG |
| what has inspiratory and expiratory centers that function only when ventilation demands it? | VRG- Ventral respiratory group |
| what are paired nuclei that adjust the output of the respiratory rhythmicity centers? | apneustic and pneumotaxic |
| what inhibits the apneustic centers and promotes passive or active exhalation? | pneumotaxic center |
| the apneustic centers promote what specifically? | inhalation by stimulating the DRG. |
| During forced breathing, the apneustic centers adjust the degree of stimulation in response to sensory information from what? | N X (vagus nerve) |
| What centers can alter the activity of the pneumotaxic centers? | cerebral cortex, limbic system, and hypothalamus |
| Where does the brain have to be damaged so that normal respiratory cycles can continue? | superior to the pons. |
| what are stereotyped, automatic responses called? | respiratory reflexes |
| what is perfusion coupling? | This occurs when the capillaries that exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen with the alveoli are no longer together. Air bypasses the alveoli. |
| what is valsalsa? | pushing air with the diaphragm. (child birth, defecation, weight lifting) |
| define eupnea | quiet breathing |
| opera singers breathe using which level? | diaphragmatic breathing |
| shallow breathing, denotes disease, impedence, arthritis- | costal breathing |
| cheyene-stokes breathing | usually seen in smokers. breathe, pause, breathe. |
| what reflex limits thoracic inflation/over expansion prevention? | herring-brewer reflex |
| under normal conditions, what is the most important factor stimulating chemoreceptors and influencing respiratory activity? | partial pressure of CO2 |
| how much of a rise in partial pressure of CO2 causes the respiratory rate to double, even if the partial pressure of O2 remains completely normal? | 10% |
| a drop in arterial partial pressure of O2 has how much of an effect on the respiratory centers? | little |
| when the arterial partial pressure drops below what is there an effect on the respiratory centers? | 60 mm Hg |
| an increase in the arterial blood partial pressure of CO2 constitutes what? | hypercapnia |
| the most common cause of hypercapnia is what? | hypoventilation |
| what is hypoventilation? | when respiratory activity is insufficient to meet the demands for tissue oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide removal |
| what occurs when the rate and depth of respiration exceed the demands for oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide removal? | hyperventilation |
| hyperventilation gradually leads to what? | hypocapnia |
| What must occur to cause shallow water blackout? | When snorkelers hyperventilate to extend their time underwater, the partial pressure of CO2 gets really low. PCO2 stimulates respiratory activity, and the brain becomes starved of oxygen. |
| baroreceptors in the carotid and aortic sinuses are monitored by sensory nerves within what? | the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves |
| what are monitored by sensory nerves in the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves? | baroreceptors in the carotid and aortic sinuses |
| When arterial blood pressure falls below its normal range, what happens to the respiratory minute volume? | it increases due to stimulation of the respiratory centers |
| what causes the respiratory minute volume to decrease? | Arterial blood pressure rising above normal levels, inhibiting the respiratory centers |
| inflation and deflation reflexes are activated by what? | stretch receptors in the lungs during forced breathing. |
| the sensory information of inflation and deflation is distributed to where? | the apneustic centers and the VRG |
| what prevents overexpansion of the lungs during forced breathing? | inflation reflex |
| what inhibits the expiratory centers and stimulates the inspiratory centers when the lungs are deflating? | deflation reflex |
| stretch receptors that stimulate lung expansion are located where? | in the smooth muscle around bronchioles |
| stretch receptors that are stimulated as elastic fibers recoil are located where? | in the alveolar walls |
| what includes sneezing and coughing? | protective reflexes |
| what is triggered by an irritation of the nasal cavity wall? | sneezing |
| what is triggered by an irritation of the larynx, trachea, or bronchi? | coughing |
| what is a period in which respiration is suspended? | apnea |
| air leaving the larynx can travel at what speed? | 99 mph |
| as elastic tissue deteriorates throughout the body, what happens? | vital capacity decreases |
| as arthritic changes stiffen rib articulations, what happens? | compliance and respiratory minute volume is reduced |
| what form of COPD is normal in individuals over age 50? | emphysema |
| what accounts for 12.6% of new cancer cases in both men and women? | lung cancers |
| what is an irritant, and its chemicals contain several carcinogens? | cigarette smoke |
| the normal respiratory epithelium consists of what kind of epithelium with an abundance of mucus cells that helps clean inhaled air? | pseudostratified ciliated columnar |
| define dysplasia | damaged cells. |
| what happens in dysplasia? | the cells are damaged, and the cilia of respiratory epithelial cells are damaged and paralyzed by exposure to cigarette smoke. |
| what happens in metaplasia? | a tissue changes its structure in response to injury or chemical stress. The respiratory surface converts to stratified that may protect connective tissue, but does nothing for the respiratory tract. |
| In ____, the abnormal cells form a cancerous tumor, or ____. | neoplasia; neoplasm |
| in ____, the most dangerous stage of neoplasia, the cells become malignant and spread, or metastasize, to other parts of the body. | anaplasia |
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