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Physio Exam 2
Chapter 6, 7, & 8- Skeletal System
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| List and describe the functions of the skeletal system | 1. Support- structures rely on surrounding structures to work right 2. Protection- some organs need protection (brain) 3. Mineral storage- Ca 4. Triglyceride storage 5. Red and white blood cell formation (hemopoiesis) 6. Leverage (assistance in move |
| Differentiate between the two divisions of the skeletal system and give examples | Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton |
| Describe the classification of bone based on shape, giving examples for each type | 1. Long- humerus 2. Flat-Sternum 3. Short- Trapezoid, wrist bone 4. Irregular- vertebra 5. Sesamoid- patella 6. Pneumatized- ethmoid 7. Sutural Bones- In between sutures of skull |
| Describe the anatomy of a long bone | Epiphysis- spongy bone- ends (distal and proximal) Metaphysis- between E and D Diaphysis- compact bone- shaft Metaphysis Epiphysis Articular Cartilage- proximal and distal ends for most bones Periosteum- surrounding outside Endosteum- inside layer |
| List and describe the functions of the 4 cell types found in bone | 1. Osteogenic 2. Osteoblasts (bone remodeling) 3. Osteocytes 4. Osteoclasts (bone remodeling) |
| Discuss modeling and remodeling of bone | |
| Composition of the skeletal system | 1. The skeleton: all bones and the connective tissues which attach them to each other (cartilages, ligaments, joints and more) 2. Each bone is an organ: containing osseous (C) tissue, blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels, cartilage, CT coverings |
| Levels of organization | Chemical/molecular, cellular, ORGAN, ORGAN SYSTEM, organism (We will cover skeletal, muscular, and nervous) |
| Appendicular Skeleton | limbs |
| Main regions of the axial skeleton | Total of 80 bones Skull- cranium and face 8 Associated bones- hyoid and auditory ossicles 7 vertebral column- 26 thorax- sternum/ribs 25 |
| Divisions of the appendicular skeleton | Total 126 bones Pectoral- Clavicle and scapula 4 Upper Limbs- humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges 64 Pelvic (hip) girdle- hip, pelvic, or coxal bone 2 Lower limbs- Femur, patella, fibula, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals , phalanges 60 |
| Humerous | 2 |
| Ulna | 2 |
| Radius | 2 |
| Carpals | 16 |
| Metacarpals | 10 |
| Phalanges | 28 |
| Hip, pelvic, or coxal bone | 2 |
| Patella | 2 |
| Fibula | 2 |
| Tibia | 2 |
| Tarsals | 14 |
| Metatarsals | 10 |
| Phalages | 28 |
| Cranium | 8 |
| Face | 14 |
| Hyoid | 1 |
| Auditory ossicles | 6 |
| Vertebral colunm | 26 |
| Sternum | 1 |
| Ribs | 24 |
| Periosteum and Endosteum important for... | Important for bone growth and remodeling |
| Periosteum | Connective tissue membrane covering external surface of bones - Continuous with tendons, connective tissue of joints - Attached to bone matrix via perforating fibers 2 Layers: Outer fibrous, and inner osteogenic (creation of bone) |
| Endosteum | Lining inner surfaces including marrow cavity, trabecullae of spongy bone, canals of compact bone Contains osteogenic cells- important for bone growth and remodeling |
| Composition of bone | Connective tissue- Extracellular matrix (ground substance:contains organic and inorganic components and fibers-collagen fibers) and cells (Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts) |
| Osteogenic cells | Stem cells that are formed from mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue) ostergebic cells->mitsis->daughter osteogenic cells->differentiation-> osteoblasts |
| Osteoblasts | Cells that build bone Synthesize organic components of matrix Initiate calcification-take calcium from blood and deposit it within matrix by exocytosis Immature cells |
| Osteocytes | Mature cells involved in maintenance of bone- monitor bones |
| Osteoclasts | Break down bone Release proteolytic enzymes and acids to degrade collagen and release minerals to blood derived from myeloid stem cells (not osteogenic cells) |
| ORDER OF CELLS | Osteogenic cell (develops into an osteoblast) Osteoblast (forms bone matrix) Osteocyte (maintains bone tissue) Osteoclast (functions in resorption, the breakdown of bone matrix) |
| Bone modeling | Construction The process by which bone is formed by osteoblasts without prior bone resorption- happens during growth and produces change in bone size and shape |
| Bone remodeling | - Reconstruction - ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue - Occurs when bone is first resorbed by osteoclasts and then formed in the same location by osteoblasts- happens throughout life |
| Goal of modeling/remodeling | Achieve strength for loading and lightness for mobility How? 1. Strategically deposit bone where it is needed 2. Remove bone from where it is not needed to avoid bulk |
| Clavicle | 2 |
| Scapula | 2 |
| Total bones in adult skeleton | 206 |
| Articular Cartilage | thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of the epiphysis where the bone forms an articulation (joint) with another bone. It reduces friction and absorbs shock at freely movable joints |
| Epiphysis | proximal and distal ends of the bone |
| Metaphysis | regions between the D and the epiphyse. In a growing bone, each metaphysis contains an epiphyseal(growth)plate, a layer of hyaline cartilage-allows the D of the bone to grow length.When bone ceases to grow,(18-21)cartilage replaced by bone-epiphyseal line |
| Diaphysis | bone's shaft or body- the long, cylindrical, main portion of the bone. |
| Spongy Bone | - Doesn't contain osteons - Contains lamellae arranged in an irregular lattice of thin columns called trabeculae - Makes up most interior bone tissue of short, flat and irregularly shaped bones and epiphyses of long bones |
| Compact Bone | - Strongest form of bone tissue - Beneath the periosteum of all bones and is bulk of diaphyses - Protection and support and resists the stresses produced by weight and movement |
| Osteo | bone |
| Osteology | study of bone tissue |
| Goal of modeling/remodeling during growth and adulthood | Growth- to achieve the skeleton's peak strength Adulthood- to maintain bone strength by removing damaged bone |
| Bone is able to: | Bones develop fatigue damage 1. Detect location and magnitude of damage 2. Remove damage 3. Replace it with new bone 4. Restore bone's material composition, make micro- and macro-architecture are ideal |
| Bone Remodeling Steps | 1. Activation 2. Resorption 3. Reversal 4. Formation 5. Quiescence |
| Activation | - Start - preosteoclasts are stimulated and differentiate under the influence of cytokines and growth factors into mature active osteoclasts |
| Resorption | - Removal of minerals and collagen fibers from bone by osteoclasts - osteoclasts digest mineral matrix (old bone) - Breakdown of bone extracellular matrix |
| Reversal | - end of resorption; recruitment of osteoblasts - stop breaking down bone |
| Formation | - osteoblasts (lay down fresh bone) synthesize new bone matrix |
| Quiescence | - osteoblasts become resting bone lining cells on the newly formed bone surface - live in a monitor extracellular matrix |
| Osseous tissue | bone- connective tissue- contains an abundant extracellular matrix that surrounds widely separated cells |
| Hemopoiesis | connective tissue called red bone marrow prodices red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelers |
| Mesenchyme | - An embryonic connective tissue from which all other connective tissues arrise |
| Differentiation | Development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state |
| Bone resorption | removal of minerals and collagen fibers form bone by osteoclasts |
| Red bone marrow | produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets through hemopoiesis consists of developing blood cells, adipocytes, fibroblasts, and macrophages within a network of reticular fibers |
| Yellow bone marrow | consists mainly of adipose cells, which store triglycerides- potential energy reserve |
| With increasing age, bone marrow changes mainly from what to what? | from red to yellow marrow |
| Differentiate between the two divisions of the skeletal system | Axial (along longitudinal axis-head to tail bone) and appendicular (girdles) |
| Flat bone anatomy | Compact bone on outside and spongy (diploe) on the inside |
| List the components of the matrix of bone and describe how each component contributes to the bone's strength | Ground Substance- contains organic and inorganic components Fibers- Collagen Fibers |
| Describe the differences between compact and spongy bone in terms of location, function, and composition | NOTES |
| Describe the microscopic structure of compact bone (the osteon) and understand the purpose of its organization | NOTES |
| Which cells make the organic components of bone? | osteoblasts |
| Extracellular matrix organic components | - Secreted by osteoblasts Ground Substance (glycosaminoglycans- GAG) - Glycoproteins=polysaccharide+protein - (-) charged- trap water Collagen Fibers - Fibrous protein arranged in helical form - resistant to pulling forces - flexibility and framewo |
| Collagen Fibers | - fibrous protein arranged in helical form - very resistant to pulling forces - provides flexibility and a framework for deposition of calcium crystals |
| Ground Substance | - glycosaminoglycans- GAG - Glycoproteins=polysaccharide+protein - Chondroitin sulfate and Hyaluronic acid - Negatively charged- trap water |
| Type 1 Collagen | - fibrous protein arranged in helical form - assembles in fibrils that form into fiber - resistant to pulling forces - delxible framework for deposition of calcium crytals Not much nutrition triple helical structure Fibroles- parallel structures |
| Extracellular matrix inorganic components | Water - Attracted to ground substance - Makes up 25% of the extracellular matrix Hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 - Ca3(PO4)2+Ca(OH)2 (calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide) +other minerals (calcium carbonate) and some ions (Mg, F, K) - In plates |
| Organization of the organic/inorganic components | - Salts (hydroxyapatite) are deposited within collagen fibers - As the hydroxyapatite condenses, other inorganic salts and ions precipitate in the matrix to fill in the spaces between fibers |
| Organization of mineral | 1. Collagen fiber contains mineralized fibrils 2. The fibrils contain small mineral plates bound by helical noncollagenous proteins (collagen cross links) - Really solid material |
| Collagen function | Provides flexibility and resistance to tension |
| Minerals function | provide firmness (resistance to compression) |
| Soak bone in weak acid, what happens? | Remove minerals from bone (just collagen) and bone becomes rubbery |
| Apply proteolytic enzymes (denature protein), what happens? | Remove collagen from bone, (just minerals) bone becomes brittle/crumble |
| Bone needs both collagen and minerals for maximum strength! | Bone needs both collagen and minerals for maximum strength! |
| Rickets | (inorganic component deficient) - Calcium deficiency due to lack of vitamin D leads to flexible bones (bowed legs) |
| Deficiency in the inorganic component of the matrix of bone will lead to: | Flexible Bones |
| Scurvy | (organic component deficient) - Problem with collagen synthesis due to vitamin C deficiency leads to brittle bones that can fracture easily |
| Deficiency in the organic component of the matrix of bone will lead to: | brittle bones |
| Spongy bone vs. compact bone | both have the same chemical composition but different organization |
| Spongy Bone | Organization - Irregular lattice of thin plates called trabeculae - Osteocytes housed in lacunae - Trabeculae make hollowed out regions that have marrow - Bone ring layers are called lamellae - Canaliculi share nutrients and messages - Endosteum- OB |
| Spongy bone location | - Epiphyses of long bones - Surrounding marrow cavities - Flat, short, and irregular bones |
| Spongy bone functions | - Withstand forces from many directions- trabeculae arranged along lines of stress- orientation changes in circumstances - Lightens the skeleton (not as strong as compact bone) - Contains red marrow for hemopoiesis |
| Compact bone organization | Solid network of bone organized in concentric ring structures called osteons |
| Compact bone location | - External layer of all bones - Diaphysis of long bones- primary substance in shafy |
| Compact bone function | gives long bones ability to withstand forces along longitudinal axis |
| Lacunae | holes where you find osteocytes between the lamellae |
| Osteon | functional unit of compact bones concentric ring structures find cells that monitor bone- osteocytes Haversian system |
| Canaliculi | Connects lacunae together radiating in all directions from the lacunae and they are filled with extracellular fluid |
| Trabeculae | lamellae arranged in an irregular lattice of thin columns in spongy bone |
| Osteon micro-anatomy | - Contains central canal - concentrically arranged lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi - aligned in same direction along lines of stress - Between the osteons is interstitial lamellae (which also have lacunae with osteocytes and canaliculi |
| Central (Haversian) canal | - Find ____ traveling through bone - Capillaries - Run longitudinally through the bone - NOTES |
| Lamellae (Concentric vs circumferential vs interstitial) | Lamellae- rings of calcified extracellularmatrix Interstitial- Between the osetons Concentric- around the central canal Circumferential- Length around outside of layers of compact bone |
| Perforating (Volkmann's channels) canal | - blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves from the periosteum penetrate compact bone through the canals - these vessels and nerves connect with those of the medullary cavity, periosteum, and central or haversian canals |
| Osteocyte dendrites location and functions | In osteocyte Permeate all over bone matrix |
| List the components of the matrix of bone and describe how each component contributes to the bone's strength | |
| Describe the differences between compact and spongy bone in terms of location, function, and composition | |
| Describe the microscopic structure of compact bone (the osteon) and understand the purpose of organization | |
| Differentiate between the processes of intramembranous and endochondral ossification | - intramembranous- bone forms directly within mesenchyme arranges in sheetlike layers that resemble membranes - endochondral- bone forms within hyaline cartilage that develops from mesenchyme |
| Be able to determine the order of events involved in intramembranous | 1. Development of the ossification center 2. Calcification 3. Formation of trabeculae 4. Development of the periosteum |
| Be able to determine the order of events involved in endochrondral ossification | 1. Development cartilage model 2. Growth cartilage model (interstitial/appositional growth) 3. Develop primary ossification center 4. Develop medullary (marrow) cavity 5. Develop secondary ossi center 6. Form articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate |
| List the bones formed by intramembranous and endochrondral ossification | |
| Describe how the presence of an epiphyseal plate facilitates the lengthening of bones. | |
| Bones of an infant can be soft in certain regions, like: | - Fontanels (soft spots on skull) - Epiphysis of long bones made of cartilage in infant - Epiphyseal plates stay as cartilage until adulthood (end of puberty) |
| Lots of bone in and out of bone | comes from periosteum nutrient foramen (freemen) NOTES |
| Endosteum | membrane that lines the medullary cavity of bones, consisting of osteogenic cells and scattered osteoclasts |
| The 'bones' of a fetus (before birth) are composed of: | Loose connective tissue (mesenchyme) hyaline cartilage |
| No cell can live if it is more than 6 cells away from capillaries | |
| Ossification | - Process by which bone forms - replacement of other connective tissues by bone - beings during the second month of development - continues many years after birth and into adulthood |
| Intramembranous ossification | "within membrane" Mesenchyme-> bone mesenchyme gets replaced by bone |
| Which of the following structures are NOT found in spongy bone" | Central canals |
| Endochondral ossification | "inside cartilage" Mesenchyme -> cartilage -> bone |
| The primary weakness of compact bone | ability to resist torque twisting forces is less that any other force exerted to the bone - so collages fibers are alternating so they are less likely to break |
| Bones formed by intramembranous ossification | - Flat bones of the skull (frontal parietal ect.) - most facial bones (mandible ect) - Sternum - Clavicles (medial parts) Heterotropic bone formation - sesamoid bones - abnormal stresses can stimulate bone formation where bone is not normally found |
| Intramembranous ossification steps | 1. Development of ossification center- osteoblasts secrete organic extracellular matrix 2. Calcification- Ca and other mineral salts are deposited and excell matrix calcifies (hardens) 3. Formation of trabeculae- NOTECAR 4. Development of the periosteu |
| Heterotropic bone formation | Sesamoid bones abnormal stresses can stimulate bone formation in areas where bone is not normally found |
| Does a newborn have patellas at birth? | No |
| Formation of trabeculae | 3. Extracellular matrix develops into trabeculae that fuse to form spongy bone - spongy bone |
| Calcification | 2. Ca and other mineral salts are deposited and excell matrix calcifies (hardens) - osteoblasts deposit calcium in the matrix - osteoblasts differentiate into osteocytes |
| Development of ossification center | 1. osteoblasts secrete organic extracellular matrix - mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteogenic cells, then into osteoblasts - osteoblasts secrete bone matrix |
| Development of the periosteum | 4. Mesenchyme at the periphery of the bone develops into the periosteum remodeling of spongy bone to compact bone |
| Calcification vs. Ossification | C- the deposition of calcium O- replacement of other connective tissues by bone - Calcification is an essential part of ossification |
| Bones formed by Endochrondral ossification | Most bones in the body |
| Endochondral | growth in length at the epiphyseal plate is by endochrondral ossification |
| Steps of Endochrondral Ossification | 1. Formation of a cartilage model 2. Cartilage model grows in length and width- begins to undergo calcification 3. Primary ossification ctr. forms (spongy bone) |
| Formation of cartilage model | 1. Cartilage model grows in length and width - the cartilage model begins to undergo calcification - blood vessels penetrate model and stimulate differentiation of chondroblasts into osteoblasts - osteoblasts secrete bony matrix - calcification occurs |
| Cartilage model grows in length and width | 2. - cartilage model begins to undergo calcification - blood vessels penetrate model and stimulate differentiation of chondroblasts into osteoblasts - Calcification occurs |
| Primary ossification ctr. forms (spongy bone) | 3. |
| Ostroclasts invade the newly formed bone and carve a marrow cavity | spongy bone is remodeled into compact bone in the diaphysis - epiphysis remain as cartilage- for now - around the time of birth blood vessels penetrate the epiphysis |
| Secondary ossification centers form | 5. |
| Spongy bone replaces most of the cartilage | 6. except epiphyseal plates and articula cartilage |
| Summary of Endochondral Ossification | Lecture 12 |
| Primary Ossification | - Marrow cavity formed - Replaces all cartilage with bone - Located in diaphysis - Occurs before birth |
| Secondary Ossification | - No marrow cavity - Some cartilage is left for epiphyseal plates (growth) and articular cartilage - Located in epiphysis - Occurs around the time of birth |
| Types of Bone Growth | Interstitial growth and appositional growth |
| Interstitial growth | "growth within the tissue" - increases length in long bones occurs by continued endochondral ossification |
| Appositional growth | "growth at the edge" - increases thickness occurs in the periosteum of all bones |
| Interstitial Growth (Endochondral Ossification) | - Diaphyseal o-clasts break down calcified cartilage - O-blasts lay down spongy bone - Chondroblasts will continue to form cartilage matrix at the proliferating cartilage region - Growth in length stop when the o-clasts/blasts work faster than the c-bl |
| Interstitial Growth last step | - Growth in length stop when the o-clasts/blasts work faster than the c-blasts -> epiphyseal plate closes and becomes the epiphyseal line |
| Appositional Growth of Bone | - Growth in width - Periosteal osteoblasts build bone on outer surface of bone and endosteal osteoclasts increase the diameter of the marrow cavity - Both bone diameter and cortical width increase - Generates new Osteons |
| Appositional Growth generates new Osteon | periosteal side of bone: 1 Ridges in periosteum create groove for periosteal blood vessel 2 Periosteal ridges fuse, forming an endosteum-lined tunnel 3 O-blasts in endosteum build new concentric lamallae, inward toward center of tunnel, forming new ost |
| 4th step for formation of new osteon in appositional growth | 4. Bone grows outward at osteoblasts in periosteum build new circumferential lamellae. Osteon formation repeats as new periosteal ridges fold over blood vessels |
| Fontanels | - Mesenchyme filled spaces between cranial bones - un-ossified mesenchyme - provide flexibility to fetal skull to allow for birth and rapid growth of skull |
| Epiphyseal Plate | - growth plate- layer of hyaline cartilage in the metaphysis of a growing bone that consists of four zones - zone of: resting cartilage, proliferating cartilage, hypertrophic cartilage, calcified cartilage |
| Heterotropic bone formation | NOTES |
| Growth which lengthens long bones | The activity of the epiphyseal plate os the only way that the diaphysis can increase in length |
| Epiphyseal plate closure | About 18 F and 21 M EP close; the cartilage cells stop dividing and bone replaces all the cartilage- EP fades, leaving bony structure called epiphyseal line |
| Primary vs. Secondary Ossification | P- marrow cavity formed S- no marrow cavity P- Replaces all cartilage with bone S- some cartilage is left for epiphyseal plates and articular cartilage NOTES |
| Which of the following bones is formed by intramembranous ossification? Humerus, Sternum, Coxal bones, Ribs | Sternum |
| Describe how the presence of an epiphyseal plate facilitates the lengthening of bones | |
| Describe the dietary factors that influence bone | - Minerals: bone growth and remodeling - Vitamins: stimulates activity of osteoblasts - Hormones: bone growth |
| Describe the roles of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone in the regulation of blood calcium | |
| Describe the vitamin D pathway, and the role of calcitriol in calcium homeostasis | skin (precursor 7-dehydrocholesterol) -> UV light (vitamin D3- cholecalciferol)-> blood (25-hydroxy-cholecalciferol) -> liver -> blood -> kidney intestine -> blood -> liver -> blood -> kidney |
| Describe the role of dietary calcium in maintenance of bone mass and know the recommended allowance for calcium intake for young adults | |
| Describe how exercise can affect bone mass. | early in life it can increase peak bone mass and later in life it will prevent bone loss |
| Describe the role of growth hormone, thyroxine and sex hormones in modulating bone mass | -Growth hormone:IGFs stimulate osteoblasts and promote cell division -Throxine:promote normal bone growth by stimulating osteoblasts -Sex:increased osteoblast activity and synthesis of bone extracellular matrix |
| Describe the skeletal disorders that arise rom abnormal levels of human growth hormone | |
| Define osteoporosis and identify the risk factors for development of the disease. | calcium/Vitamin D deficiency, older age, body build/weight, gender (80% female), lack of exercise, family history, menopause, amenorrhea (lack of menstruation) from low body fat, race (European, Asian), Drugs (cortisone), Alcohol, smoking |
| Factors that affect Bone Density | 1. Dietary (Minerals-Ca and P and Vitamins) 2. Exercise: placed in stress bone tissue gets stronger through increased deposition of mineral salts and production of collagen fibers by osteoblasts 3. Hormones |
| Vitamin A, C, D, K, B12 | A- stimulates activity of osteoblasts C- Needed for collagen synthesis D- Stimulates calcium absorption K, B12- Needed for synthesis of bone proteins |
| Calcium Homeostasis- Keep blood calcium in normal range (8.5-11.0 mg/dl) | Why- Calcium has important physiological roles How- Control calcium entry into and exit from blood (through level of storage in bone- through level of kidney excretion-through intestinal absorption level) |
| Calcium roles | 1. Membrane excitability 2. Blood clotting 3. Intracellular activity (second messenger) |
| Hormones involved in calcium homeostasis | 1. Calcitonin 2. Parathyroid hormone 3. Calcitriol (VItamin D) |
| Calcitonin- stimulus, source and target tissues | Stimulus: high blood calcium Source: thyroid gland (parafollicular cells) Target tissues: bone kidney intestine |
| Calcitonin Actions and end result | Actions (goal is to decrease blood Ca2+ concentration - Inhibits osteoclasts activity (decreased bone resorption) - Increases excretion of calcium at kidney - Inhibits intestinal absorption of calcium End result (decrease in blood calcium concentratio |
| Parathyroid hormone stimulus, source and target tissues | Stimulus: low blood calcium- negative feedback Source: Parathyroid gland Target tissues: bone kidney intestine |
| Parathyroid hormone actions and end result | Actions (goal to increase blood Ca2+ concentration) - Stimulates o-clasts activity (increase bone resorption) - Decreases excretion of Ca at kidney - Stimulates intestinal absorption of Ca and promotes calcitriol action End Result (increase blood Ca) |
| Vitamin D | - Calcitriol-the active form of vitamin D - steroid hormone- derived from cholesterol (lipophilic/hydrophobic) |
| The vitamin D pathway | NOTES |
| Actions of calcitriol and end result | - Stimulates osteoclast activity (increases bone resorption) - Decreases calcium excretion at the kidney - Increases calcium absorption at the intestine (works well with PTH to stimulate absorption) End Result: increase Blood calcium |
| Milk is fortified with vitamin D. GIven the actions of vitamin D, will drinking milk cause bone resorption? | No, because milk is fortified with cholecalciferol (vitamin D precursor). This precursor would only be activated if calcium was low in the blood |
| During appositional growth, the activity of periosteal osteoblasts is greater than the activity of endosteal osteoclasts. True or False | True |
| Recommended Ca2+ intake per day | - Young adults (19-50) need 1000 mg (1 g) calcium from diet and supplements to avoid bone loss |
| If dietary Ca2+ intake is very low, PTH and Calcitriol actions at the intestine will not be effective. What will happen next? | - More calcium will be released from bone because normal blood calcium levels must be maintained - Osteoclasts will be stimulated to maintain blood [Ca2+] |
| Role of exercise | Goal: reach the fracture threshold later in life - Exercise early in life- increase peak bone mass - Exercise later in life- prevent bone loss Other benefits of exercise- fall prevention - Improved strength - Improved balance and coordination |
| Hormones that Influence Bone | - Calcitonin - Parathyroid Hormone - Growth Hormone (somatotropin) - Thyroxine (T4)- thyroid hormone - Estrogen/Testerone |
| Somatotropin- Growth Hormone | - Stimulates cell growth and protein synthesis (collagen) - Stimulates formation of Insulin Like Growth factors (IGFs) -> stimulates osteoblasts activity -> stimulates bone formation |
| Skeletal disorders (GH) | - Pituitary dwarfism - Pituitary giantism - Acromegaly |
| Pituitary dwarfism | children with low levels of Growth Hormone -> slow epiphyseal growth (short)- slows thickening- forms epiphyseal line long before should |
| Pituitary giantism | hyper secretion of Growth Hormone in childhood -> accelerated epiphyseal growth (tall)- abnormally long bones |
| Acromegaly | hypersecretion of Growth Hormone after puberty -> appositional growth (thickening of bones) in the skull, hands, feel -> cant lengthen because epiphyseal plates of long bones already closed |
| Thyroxine (T4) | - Increases cell metabolism - Stimulates osteoblasts activity -> stimulates bone formation |
| Estrogen/Testosterone | - Stimulate osteoblasts activity -> stimulate bone formation - Levels increase at puberty (bone growth/spurts-eventually cause closure of epiphyseal plates becasue o-blast/clast activity greater than chondroblasts activity) -Levels decrease with old age |
| Osteoporosis | - Excessive bone loss - Porous bones (reduced bone mass) -> increased risk of fractures - condition of porous bones characterized by decreased bone mass and increased susceptibility to fractures |
| What causes reduced bone mass? | - Any factor that stimulates bone resorption or inhibits bone formation (or both) - Osteoclasts activity > Osteoblast activity - Bone Resorption > Bone formation |
| Compact bone tissue | contains few spaces and is the strongest form of bone tissue- found beneath the periosteum of all bones and makes up the bulk of the diaphyses of long bones |
| Nutrient artery | - center of diaphysis - passes through hole in compact bone called nutrient foramen - Divides into proximal and distal branches that supply both the inner part of compact bone tissue of the diaphysis and the spongy bone tissue and red marrow |
| Metaphyseal arteries | enter the metaphyses of al ong bone and together with the nutrient artery supply the red bone amrrow and bone tissue of the metaphyses |
| Epiphyseal arteries | enter the epiphyses of a long bone and supply the red bone marrow and bone tissue of the epiphyses |
| When does bone form? | 1. Initial formation of bones in an embryo and fetus 2. Growth of bones during infancy, childhood, and adolescence until their adult sizes are reached 3. Remodeling of bone 4. Repair of fractures |
| Primary ossification center | region where bone tissue will replace most of the cartilage |
| Secondary ossification center | spongy bone remains in the interior of the epiphysis |
| Deposition | addition of minerals and collagen fibers to bone by osteoblasts |
| Fracture types | - any break in a bone - Open (compound) fracture - Closed (simple) fracture - Comminuted fracture - Greenstick fracture - Impacted fracture - Pott's fracture - Colles' fracture - Stress fracture |
| Open (compound) fracture | The broken ends of the bone protrude through the skin |
| Closed (simple) fracture | Doesn't break the skin |
| Comminuted fracture | the bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces, and smaller bone fragments lie between the two main fragments |
| Greenstick fracture | partial fracture in which one side of the bone is broken and the other side bends; occurs only in children because they contain more organic than inorganic material |
| Impacted fracture | one end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into the interior of the other |
| Pott's fracture | distal end of the lateral leg bone (fibula), with serious injury of the distal tibial articulation |
| Colles' fracture | fracture of distal end of the lateral forearm bone (radius) in which the distal fragment is displaced posteriorly |
| Stress fracture | - fracture without visibly breaking - series of microscopic fissures in bone that forms without any evidence of injury to other tissues |
| Repair of fracture steps | 1. Formation of fracture hematoma 2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation 3. Bony callus formation 4. Bone remodeling of the callus |
| Formation of fracture hematoma | - blood vessels crossing the fracture line are broken, as the blood leaks the mass of blood is the fracture hematoma - Phagocytes and osteoclasts begin to remove the dead or damaged tissue in and around the fracture hematoma |
| Fibrocartilaginous callus formation | - fibroblasts from the periosteum invade the fracture site and produce collagen fibers - cells from periosteum develop into chondroblasts and begin to produce fibrocartilage in this region |
| Fibrocartilaginous callus | mass fo repair tissue consisting of collagen fibers and cartilage that bridges the broken ends of the bone |
| Bony callus formation | - Osteogenic cells develop into osteoblasts, which begin to produce spongy bone trabeculae |
| Bony callus | fibrocartilage is converted to spongy bone, the the callus is the bony callus |
| Bone remodeling as final stage of fracture repair | - dead portions of the original fragments of broken bone are gradually resorbed by osteoclasts - compact bone replaces spongy bone around the periphery of the fracture |
| Demineralization | - loss of calcium and other mineral from bone extracellular matrix - result of aging - loss of bone mass |
| Bone growth in length is called ______ growth, and bone growth in diameter (thickness) is call _______ growth | interstitial appositional |
| The crystallized inorganic mineral salts in bone contribute to bone's _______, while the collagen fibers and other organic molecules provide bone with ______. | hardness tensile strength |
| True or False: Bone resorption involves increased activity of osteoclasts | true |
| True or False: The formation of bone from cartilage is known as endochondral ossification | true |
| True or False: The growth of bone is controlled primarily by hormones | true |
| Spongy bone differs from compact bone because spongy bone | is composed of trabeculae that are oriented along lines of stress |
| A primary effect of weight-bearing exercise on bone is to | maintain and increase bone mass |
| Zone of hypertrophic cartilage | column-like later of maturing chondrocytes |
| Zone of calcified cartilage | region of dead chondrocytes |
| Zone of proliferating cartilage | layer of actively dividing chondrocytes |
| Zone of resting cartilage | layer of small, scattered chondrocytes anchoring the epiphyseal (growth) plate to the bone |
| PTH | raises blood calcium levels by increasing bone resorption |
| CT | decreases blood calcium levels by accelerating calcium deposition in bones and inhibiting osteoclasts |
| Calcitriol | active form of vitamin D; raises blood calcium levels by increasing absorption of calcium from digestive tract |
| Insulinlike growth factors | during childhood, it promotes growth at epiphyseal plate; production stimulated by human growth hormone |
| Sex hormones | involved in bone growth by increasing osteoblast activity; causes long bones to stop growing in length |
| Vitamin C | required for collagen synthesis |
| Vitamin K | required for protein synthesis |
| Osteoporosis prevention | - Increase peak bone mass at young age (up to ~30 years old) - Exercise- especially resistance training and weight bearing exercise - Eat a balanced diet- calcium, vitamin D, vitamin C |
| Treatments of osteoporosis | - Bone enhancing drugs including bisphosphonates - Calcitonin - Selective estrogen receptor modulators |
| Osteomalacia | normal loss of bone due to things like aging - condition characterized by failure of new bone formed by remodeling to calcify in adults |
| Thyroid gland | - an endocrine gland with right and left lateral lobes on either side of the trachea - secretes thyroxine (regulates metabolism, growth and development, and activity of nervous system) and triidothyronine (same) |
| Parathyroid gland | embedded in posterior surfaces of thyroid gland- secretes the parathyroid hormone which increases blood calcium leels and decreases blood phosphate level |
| Calcium decrease in bone over life span | Once reach adult, for men calcium in bone slowly and gradually decreases, for women it decreases and then quickly at menopause |
| Physical changes accompanying bone loss and vertebral fractures | As osteoporosis weakens bones, fractures of vertebra cause women to become stooped from the waist up with a height loss of four inches or more |
| List the major components of the axial skeleton | - 80 Bones - Skull (cranium 8, face 14) - Associated bones (hyoid 1, auditory ossicles 6) - Vertebral Column 26 - Thorax (sternum 1, ribs 24) |
| List the 8 bones of the cranium and be able to describe their location and articulations within the skill and the bone features that belong to each bone. | |
| List the 4 sutures and the bones that each separate. | - Coronal: frontal and 2 parietal - Sagittal: 2 parietal bones - Lambdoid: Occipital and Parietal - Squamous: Temporal and Parietal - All sutures surround the parietal bones |
| List the 14 bones of the face and be able to describe their location and articulations within the skull and the bone features that belong to each bone. | |
| List the 3 bones that compose the calvarium | 1. Frontal bone 2. Parietal bone 3. Parietal bone |
| Name the 7 bones that compose the eye orbit | 1. Frontal bone 2. Ethmoid bone 3. Lacrimal bone 4. Palatine bone 5. Maxilla 6. Zygomatic bone 7. Sphenoid bone |
| Describe the temporomandibular joint. | NOTES |
| Table 7.2 page 212- Bone Markings | - Projections on bone surfaces - Depressions in bone surfaces - Features of bones for joints (can be projections or depressions) - Openings of bones for blood vessels and nerves |
| Projections on bone surfaces | - Precess - Epicondyle - Tuberosity - Tubercle - Trochanter - Line - Crest |
| Depressions in bone surfaces | - Fossa - Sulcus |
| Features of bones for joints | - Can be projections or depressions - Facet - Head - Condyle |
| Openings of bones for blood vessels and nerves | - Foramen - Canal - Meatus - Fissure |
| The skull | - 8 cranial bones (surround the brain) - 14 facial bones - Cranium= brain case - Calvarium= the skill cap (roof of skull) |
| Cranial Bones | 1. Frontal bone 2. Parietal bones (2) 3. Occipital bone 4. Temporal bones (2) 5. Sphenoid bone 6. Ethmoid bone |
| Facial Bones | 1. Zygomatic bones 2. The maxillae (Maxillary Bones) 3. Palatine bones 4. Nasal bones 5. Lacrimal bones 6. Vomer 7. Inferior Nasal Conchae 8. Mandible |
| Associated Bones of the Skill | - Auditory ossicles - Hyoid bone |
| Auditory ossicles | - Located in the temporal bone - Malleus (hammer) 2. Incus (anvil) 3. Stapes (stirrup) |
| The 7 Bones of the Orbit | Frontal Bone Sphenoid Bone Zygomatic Bone Maxilla Ethmoid Bone Lacrimal Bone Palatine Bone |
| Temporomandibular joint | - The only moveable joint of the skull - Mandibular condyle (mandible) and mandibular fossa (temporal) form this joint |
| TMJ Syndrome | - Pain associated with muscle spasm - Muscles pull joint out of alignment |
| Zygomatic Arch | the temporal process of the zygomatic bone projects posteriorly and articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to form this |
| Hard palate | Formed by the palatine processes of the maxillae and the palatine bones |
| Nasal Septum | - The nasal cavity is divided into right and left sides by this vertical partition - Consists of bone and cartilage - Vomer, Septal cartilage, and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone |
| Nasal conchae | NOTES |
| List and describe the features common to all vertebrae | - Facet of superior articular process - Vertebral foramen - Facet for head of rib - Spinous process - Vertebral arch (lamina) - Pedicle - Transverse process - Vertebral body - Spinal cord - Inferior articular process - Intervertebral disc & fora |
| Distinguish between the three different types of vertebrae | -Cervical -Thoracic -Lumbar |
| Name the components of the thoracic cage | Bony enclosure formed by sternum, ribs and their costal cartilage, and the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae |
| Describe the articulations of the sternum with the clavicle and with the ribs | |
| Differentiate between the true and false (including floating) ribs | |
| Describe the articulations of the ribs with the vertebrae including how these articulations differ between T1, T2-T9, T10, T11, and T12 | |
| Vertebral Column | - 26 bones - 7 cervical, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, 1 sacrum, 1 coccyx |
| Normal curvatures of the vertebral column | Primary - Thoracic - Sacral Secondary - Cervical - Lumbar |
| Intervertebral Discs | - Annulus fibrosis of intervertebral discs |
| Features of the Temporal Bones | - External Auditory Meatus - Zygomatic process of the temporal bone - Mandibular fossa - Styloid Process - Mastoid Process |
| Features of the Sphenoid Bone | - Sella turcica: "saddle" - Optic canals (optic foramen) |
| Features of the Ethmoid Bone | - Crista Galli - Olfactory foramina - Cribriform plate - Perpendicular plate - Superior nasal conchae - Middle nasal conchae |
| Features of the Zygomatic Bones | - Temporal Process |
| Features of the Maxillae (maxillary bones) | - Alveoli - Palatine Processes |
| Features of the Mandible | - Mandibular condyle - Coronoid Process - Ramus - Alveoli - Body |
| Which of the following is a paired cranial bone? Ethmoid, Frontal, Occipital, Parietal, SPhenoid | Parietal |
| Which of the following is NOT a feature of the ethmoid bone? Cribriform plate, crista galli, perpendicular plate, sella turcica, superior nasal concha | Sella turcica |
| The mandibular fossa is a feature of which cranial bone? Ethmoid, Mandible, Maxilla, Sphenoid, Temporal | Temporal - Not all options are cranial bones! Mandible and Maxilla are not |
| Herniated Disc | Rupture of an intervertebral disc so that the nucleus pulposus protrudes into the vertebral cavity. - mostly in lumbar regoin - frequently slips posteriorly toward spinal cord and nerves causing acute pain and local weakness because of exerted pressur |
| Articulated Cervical Vertebrae | NOTES |
| Typical Cervical Vertebrae | - Transverse foramina house blood vessels and nerves - Large vertebral foramen for cervical enlargement of the spinal cord |
| The Atlas | - C1 - up and down movement |
| The Axis | - C2 - Side to side movement |
| Articulated Thoracic Vertebrae | - Superior articular process with the inferior articular process |
| Thoracic Vertebra | - Giraffe -Facets for rib articulation - Superior articular facet, pedicle, transverse process, facet for articular part of tubercle of tib, inf articular facet, spinous process, sup costal facet, vertebral body, inf demifacet COSTAL FACET=DEMIFACET |
| Articular Lumbar Vertebrae | - Transverse process with inferior articular facet - NOTES |
| Lumbar Vertebra | - Largest body because they bear most of the upper body - Sup articular process, transverse process, spinous process, inf articular facet, pedicle, vertebral body - Sup process facets are facing medially and inf articular facet facing laterally |
| Classification of the cervical vertebrae | - Transverse foramina - Bifurcated spinous process (not on C1 and C7) |
| Classification of the thoracic vertebrae | - Sharp inferiorly pointed spinous process - Heart shaped body - Costal facets (demifacets) for articulation with ribs |
| Classification of the lumbar vertebrae | - Blunt posteriorly pointed spinous process - Large body |
| Sacrum | - Sup articular process- articulate L5 - Base of sacrum () - Sacral ala- articulation surface on each side - Anterior sacral promontory- lip - Anterior sacral foramen - Transverse line (remains of intervertebral discs) - Apex of sacrum (inferior) |
| Coccyx | - 4+ fused bones - articulates superiorly with the apex of the sacrum |
| Structure and Function of Cervical Vertebrae | - Transverse foramina house blood vessels and nerves - Large vertebral foramen for cervical enlargement of the spinal cord |
| Structure and Function of Thoracic Vertebrae | - Facets for rib articulation |
| Structure and Function of Lumbar Vertebrae | - Largest body because they bear most of the weight of the upper body |
| The Bony Thorax | - Sternum and Ribs - Costal cartilage (between ribs and sternum- flexibility of rib cage - Intercostal space |
| Parts of the rib | - Superior facet - Inferior facet - Head - Neck - Tubercle - Articular facet - Costal angle - Costal groove - Body - Facet for costal cartilage |
| Rib Articulation | NOTES |
| Articulation between ribs and thoracic vertebrae (T2-T8) | 1. The head of the rib articulates with two thoracic vertebrae- the infe demifacet of the sup vertebrae- the sup demifacet of the inf vertebrae 2. The tubercle of the rib articulates with the trans process of the inf vertebrae-facet transverse process |
| Which bone articulates with the superior articular facets of the atlas? Axis, Occipital bone, C1, C3 | Occipital Bone |
| Articulation between rib and thoracic vertebrae (T1, T10-T12) | 1. The head of rib articulates with only one thoracic vertebra- the facet on body of thoracic vertebra 2. Tubercle of rib articulates with trans process of inf vertebra- T1, T10: facet on transverse process- T11, T12: do not articulates with tran process |
| The sacrum articulates with: The coccyx superiorly, L5 inferiorly, coxal bone laterally, femur laterally | Coxal bone laterally |
| Sternum | - Manubrium: suprasternal notch, clavicular notch, sternal angle is between manubrium and body - Body - Xiphoid process- |
| True ribs | Ribs 1-7 |
| False ribs | Ribs 8-12 |
| Floating ribs | 11-12 |
| Facet for tubercle of rib and superior demifacet are the ones that coorespond with number of rib and number of vertebra | |
| Name the bones of the pectoral girdle, their articulations and bone features | Clavicle and Scapula |
| Name the bones of the arm and forearm, their articulations and bone features | |
| Name the bones of the wrist and hand and describe how they are names | |
| Differentiate between the pelvic girdle and the pelvis, listing the bones that compose each | |
| List the bones of the thigh and leg, including the patella, and describe their articulations and role in weight bearing and/or limb/joint stability. Name the bone features for each bone | |
| Name the bones of the ankle. Be able to describe their articulations of the talus, and understand the direction of weight transfer from tibia to talus to calcaneus and foot | |
| List the bones of the foot and describe how they are named | |
| Appendicular Skeleton | - 126 bones - Pectoral Girdles - Upper Limb - Pelvic Girdle - Lower Limb |
| Pectoral Girdles | - Clavicle and Scapula |
| Upper Limbs | - Humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges |
| Pelvic Girdle | - Hip, pelvic or coxal bone |
| Lower Limbs | - Femur, patella, fibula, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges |
| Pectoral Girdle Articulations | - Acromioclavicular joint - Sternoclavicular joint - Glenohumeral joint |
| The clavicle articulation | - Acromial end of clavical articulates with the acromion of the scapula (appendicular skeleton) - Sternal end of the clavicle articulates with the clavicular notch of the sternum (axial skeleton) |
| The scapula | - Anterior: Acromion, Coracoid process, Glenoid cavity, Lateral border, Subscapular fossa, medial border - Posterior:supraspinous fossa, infraspinous fossa, medial border, acromion, coracoid process, spine, glenoid cavity, lateral border |
| Humerus | - bone of the arm - Greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, coranoid fossa, capitulum, head, deltiod tuberosity, medial epicondyle, trochlea, olecranon, lateral epicondyle, intertubercular groove |
| Radius | lateral bone of the forearm |
| Ulna | medial bone of the forearm |
| Carpals | bones of the wrist |
| Metacarpals | bones of the palm |
| Phalanges | bones of the fingers |
| Arm features for articulation with forearm | Capitulum, coronoid fossa, trochea, olecranon fossa |
| The head of the radius articulates with: | capitulum of the humerus |
| Forearm Bones and Features | - Ulna: olecranon process, trochlear notch, coronoid process, head, styloid process - Radius: head, radial notch, radial tuberosity, styloid process - Interosseous Membrane |
| Name 5 pairs of bone features (all containing articular cartilage) that articulate at the elbow joint to allow for flexion/extension and supination/pronation | Head, capitilum, trochlea, radial notch (lateral side of ulna), trochlear notch (on ulna) |
| Carpal, Palmar & Digital Bones | - Carpals - Metacarpals - Phalanges: Proximal, middle, distal - I, II, III, IV, V- starting at thumb as I |
| Bones of the Pelvic Girdle | - 2 coxal bones (ilium, ischium, pubis) connected by pubic symphysis - Pelvis (coxal bones, sacrum and coccyx - Pubis symphysis, acetabulum (biggest socket for joint in body), obturator foramen (biggest foramen in body) |
| The Coxal bone (os coxa) | - Ilium, Pubis (ANT), Ischium (INF POST) - Each piece has a part in the acetabulum - Greater sciatic notch, lesser sciatic notch, ischial tuberosity (sitting bones), iliac crest, acetabulum, obturator foramen |
| Male vs. Female Pelvis | - Female: pubic arch is greater than 90 degrees, iliac crest farther apart - Male: pubic arch is less than 90 degrees - All for successful birthing of a child - WIde openings of cavity, wide iliac crest, and wide pubic arch! |
| Lower Limb | - Femur: bone of the thigh - Patella: knee cap - Tibia: medial bone of the leg - Fibula:lateral bone of the leg - Tarsals: bones of the ankle - Metatarsals: bones of the sole of the foot - Phalanges: bones of the toes |
| Femur features | Greater trochanter (largest projection), head (articulates with acetabulum), neck, lesser trochanter, body, gluteal tuberosity (posterior-articulates with gluts), linea aspera, lateral epicondyle, medial epicondyle, medial condyle, lateral condyle, |
| Femur Articulations | - Coxal bone: Acetabulum - Tibia: Medial and lateral condyles - Patella: line of cartilage - Fibula does NOT!! articulate with the femur |
| Tibia and Fibula features | - Tibia: tibial tuberosity, anterior crest (shin), medial malleolus, medial condyle, lateral condyle - Fibula: head, lateral malleolus |
| Leg articulations with the tarsals | - Talis articulates with tibia and fibula - NOTES - Rocks anterior and posterior |
| Pedal Bones: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges | - Tarsals: calcaneus (heel bone) and talus - Metatarsals: I, II, III, IV, V (starting at the big toe) - Phalanges: Proximal, middle, distal |
| Transfer of weight from tibia to calcaneus and metatarsals/phalanges | from tibia onto the talus- the talus receives all the weight and transfers it in all directions, throughout metatarsals and phalanges and calcaneous. |
| Glenohumeral | NOTES |
| List the 3 structural classifications of articulations | fibrous (dense regular/irregular CT between bones-for no movement), cartilaginous (hyaline cartilage between bones- growth plates), and synovial joints |
| List and describe the 3 functional classifications of articulations | synarthrosis (immoveable), amphiarthrosis (slightly moveable-intervertebral disk), and diarthrosis (freely moveable) |
| Define the subtypes of the three functional classifications of articulations discussed in lecture and give examples of each | - Synarthroses (suture, gomphosis, synchondrosis) - Amphiarthroses (syndesmosis, interossous membrane, and synphysis) - Diarthroses (gliding joint, hinge joint, pivot joint, condyloid joint, saddle joint, ball-and-socket joint) |
| Describe the basic components of a synovial joint | - synovial cavity - articular capsule (surrounds synovial joint, encloses synovial cavity, united articulating bones) - Synovial fluid - Accessory ligaments and articular discs - nerve and blood supply - bursae and tendon sheaths |
| List the functions of synovial joint | |
| List the functions of synovial fluid | - viscous, clear or yellow fluid - hyaluronic acid - phagocytic cells |
| Describe the shoulder joint and the knee joint including the ligaments and tendons that stabilize each joint | |
| Describe the two types of arthritis and list the major risk factors for osteoarthritis | |
| Articulations (Joints/Arthroses) | - Part of the skeleton, part of skeletal system - Points of contact between bones, bone(s) and cartilage, or bone and teeth - The more stable a joint, the less mobility it affords the body and vice versa |
| Arthrology | the study of joints |
| Kinesiology | study of body motions |
| Joints Classified by Structure | 1. Fibrous: Dense regular CT between bones 2. Cartilaginous: Hyaline cartilage between bones 3. Synovial: Fluid (synovial fluid) between bones |
| Joints Classified by Function | 1. Synarthrosis: joint which is immovable 2. Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable 3. Diathrosis: freely movable |
| Types of Synarthroses | 1. Suture (fibrous joint) 2. Gomphosis (fibrous joint) 3. Synchondrosis (cartilaginous joint) |
| Types of Amphiarthroses | 1. Syndesmosis (fibrous joing) 2. Interosseous Membrane (fibrous joint) 3. Symphysis (cartilaginous joint) |
| Types of Diarthroses | 1. Gliding joint 2. Hinge joint 3. Pivot joint 4. Condyloid joint 5. Saddle joint 6. Ball-and-socket joint ALL DIARTHROSES ARE SYNOVIAL JOINTS |
| Structure of Diarthroses | - Freely movable joint - synovial joints - variety of shapes and permit several different types of movements |
| Functions of synovial fluid | - Lubrication of the joint - Provision of nutrients to articular cartilage (which is avascular) - Shock absorption |
| Accessory structures of synovial joints | - Ligaments: intracapsular and extracapsular - Tendons - Bursae - Menisci (articular discs) |
| The Glenohumeral Joint | - Shoulder joint - Diarthrosis- freely movable - Highle mobile tri-axial joint (more prone to injury) - Stabilized by 5 ligaments and the tendons of 5 muscles |
| Glenohumeral joint ligaments | - Coracohumeral ligament - Glenohumeral ligements - Transverse humeral ligament |
| Glenohumeral joint tendons DONE AFTER THIS | - Tendon of biceps brachii muscle (long head) - Tendon of infraspinatus muscle - tendon of teres minor muscle - tendon of supraspinatus muscle - Tendon of subscapularis muscle |
| Tibiofemoral Joint | - Diathrosis - Mono-axial joint - Medial and lateral menisci cushion the joint - 7 ligaments stabilize the joint (5 extracapsular and 2 intracapsular) |
| Tibiofemoral ligaments | - fibular collateral ligament - tibial collateral ligament - patellar ligament - oblique popliteal ligament - arcuate popliteal ligament - anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) - posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) |
| Arthritis | 1. Osteoarthritis (OA): degenerative 2. Rheumatoid (RA): inflammatory |
| Osteoarthritis risk factors | - Heredity - Overweight - Joint injury - Repeated overuse - Aging - Lack of physical activity - Nerve injury |
| Which of NOT true about the humerus? A. it articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula B. its distal end articulates with the radius and ulna C. it is a long bone found in the arm D. it is part of the pectoral girdle E. all above are true | D |
| While watching a Sidewinder game, you were struck in the upper lip by a foul ball. Which of the following bones were most likely fractured? A. Vomer & maxillae B. Frontal & ethmoid C. Temporal & mandible D. Maxillae & clavicle E. Zygomatic & hyoid | A |
| When the epiphyseal plate has been replaced by bone: A. puberty begins B. a long bone has reached its adult length C. endochondral ossification begins D. testosterone and estrogen levels in the blood are low E. bones become more brittle | B |
| The bone that forms the medial and inferior portion of the eye orbit and part of the hard palate is the: A. mandible B. ethmoid C. maxilla D. zygomatic E. sphenoid | C |
| Ossification of the ends of long bones: A. is characterized by secondary ossification B. involves medullary cavity formation C. takes twice twice as long as diaphysis ossification D. is a characteristic of intramembranous bone formation | A |
| Which hormone increases osteoclast activity to release more calcium ions into the bloodstream? A. Calcitonin B. Throxine C. Estrogen D. Parathryoid hormone | D |
| Inadequate levels of Vitamin C can lead to: A. brittle bones B. flexible bones C. excessive growth of facial bones D. rickets | A |
| Bones are covered by a protective layer of connective tissue called the periosteum. The inner layer of the periosteum includes what type of cells? A. osteocytes B. chondrocytes C. fibroblasts D. osteogenic cells | D |
| The parietal bones of the skill articulate with which group of bones listed below? A. frontal, temporal, zygomatic B. frontal, temporal, occipital C. frontal, temporal, maxillary D. frontal, temporal, nasal | B |
| The inferior tip of the sternum is the: A. manubrium B. ala C. xiphoid process D. body | C |
| All of the following are features of the ethmoid bone except: A. crista galli B. superior nasal concha C. cribriform plate D. inferior nasal concha | D |
| The processes of which two bones join to form the zygomatic arch? A. maxilla and temporal B. maxilla and zygomatic C. temporal and zygomatic D. temporal and frontal | C |
| medullary cavity | space within the shaft of the bone that contains yellow bone marrow |
| yellow bone marrow | triglyceride storage tissue |
| red bone marrow | hemopoietic tissue |
| articular cartilage | thin later of hyaline cartilage covering the ends of bones where they form a joint |
| epiphyses | proximal and distal ends of bones |
| diaphysis | the long, cylindrical main portion of the bone; the shaft |
| metaphysis | in a growing bone, the region that contains the epiphyseal plate |
| periosteum | the tough covering that surrounds the bone surface wherever cartilage is not present |
| epiphyseal (growth) plate | a layer of hyaline cartilage in the area between the shaft and end of a growing bone |
| endosteum | membrane lining the medullary cavity |
| epiphyseal line | a remnant of the active epiphyseal (growth) plate; a sign that the bone has stopped growing in length |
| perforating (Sharpey's) fibers | bundles of collagen fibers that attach periosteum to bone |
| osteomyelitis | an infection of bone |
| Membrane-filled spaces between cranial bones that enable the fetal skull to modify its size and shape for passage through the birth canal are called _________. | Fontanels |
| The hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone contains the ______. | pituitary gland |
| The regions of the vertebral column that consist of fused vertebrae are the ______ and the ______. | sacrum coccyx |
| True/False: The atlanto-occipital joints allow you to rotate the head, as in signifying "no." | false |
| True/False: Ribs that are not attached to the sternum are known as the true ribs | false |
| In which of the following bones are paranasal sinuses not found? frontal bone, sphenoid bone, lacrimal bones, ethmoid bone, maxillae | Lacrimal bones |
| Which are mismatched? A. mandible: only movable bone in the skull B. sacrum: supports lower back C. thoracic vertebrae: articulate with thoracic ribs posteriorly D. inferior nasal conchae: classified as facial bones | B. sacrum: supports lower back |
| Which of the following bones are NOT paired? vomer, palatine, lacrimal, maxilla, nasal | vomer |
| The suture located between a parietal and temporal bone is the: | squamous |
| The primary vertebral curves that appear during fetal development are the: | thoracic curve and sacral curve |
| What are functions of the cranial bones? | - protection of the brain - attachment of muscles that move the head - protection of the special sense organs - attachment to the meninges - attachment of muscles that produce facial expressions |
| Foramen | opening for passage of blood vessels, nerves, or ligaments |
| Tuberosity | large, rounded, rough projection |
| Spinous process | sharp, slender projection |
| Crest | prominent ridge or elongates projection |
| Facet | smooth, flat articular surface |
| Fissure | narrow slit between adjacent parts of blood vessels or nerves |
| Condyle | large round protuberance at the end of a bone |
| Fossa | shallow depression |
| Meatus | tubelike opening |
| Frontal bone | supraorbital foramen |
| articulation of mandibular fossa and articular fossa and articular tubercle of the temporal bone to the mandible | temporomandibular joint |
| temporal bone | external auditory meatus |
| occipital bone | foramen magnum |
| sphenoid bone | optic foramen |
| ethmoid bone | cribriform plate |
| maxillae | palatine process |
| mandible | ramus, body, and condylar process |
| cervical vertebrae | transverse foramen, bifid spinous processes |
| axis | dens |
| sacrum | promontory |
| ribs | costal cartilages |
| sternum | xiphoid process |
| bones that have greater length than width and consist of a shaft and a variable number of extremities | long bones |
| cube-shaped bones that are nearly equal in length ad width | short bones |
| bones that develop in certain tendons where there is considerable friction, tension, and physical stress | sesamoid bones |
| small bones located within joints between certain cranial bones | sutural bones |
| thin bones composed of two nearly parallel plates of compact bones enclosing a layer of spongy bones | flat bone |
| bones with complex shapes, including vertebrae and some facial bones | irregular bones |
| patella is an example | sesamoid bone |
| bones that provide considerable protection and extensive areas for muscle attachment | flat bones |
| include femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, and radius | long bones |
| include cranial bones, sternum, and ribs | flat bones |
| include almost all of the carpal (wrist) and tarsal (ankle) bones | short bones |
| Frontal bone | forms the forehead |
| Temporal bones | form the inferior lateral aspects of the cranium and part of the cranial floow; contain sygomatic process and mastoid process |
| Ethmoid bone | forms part of the anterior portion of the cranial floor, medial wall of the orbits, superior portions of nasal septum, most of the side walls of the nasal cavity: is a major supporting structure of nasal cavity |
| Zygomatic bones | form the prominence of the cheek and part of the lateral wall and floor of each orbit |
| Mandible | the largest, strongest facial bone: is the only moveable skull bone |
| Vomer | a roughly triangular bone on the floor of the nasal cavity: one of the components of the nasal septum |
| Parietal bones | form greater portion of the sides and roof of the cranial cavity |
| Occipital bone | forms the posterior part and most of the base of the cranium: contains the foramen magnum |
| Sphenoid bone | called the keystone of the cranial floor; contains the sella turcuca, optic foramen, and pterygoid processes |
| Nasal bones | form the bridge of the nose |
| lacrimal bones | the smallest bones of the face: contain a vertical groove that houses a structure that gathers tears and passes them into the nasal cavity |
| hyoid bone | does not articulate with any other bone |
| maxillae | unite to form the upper jawbone and articulate with every bone of the face except the lower jawbone |
| palatine bones | form the posterior part of the hard palate, part of the floor and lateral wall of the nasal cavity, and a small portion of the floors of the orbits |
| inferior nasal conchae | scroll-like bones that form a part of the lateral walls of the nasal cavity: functions in the turbulent circulation and filtration of air |
| The bones that comprise the palm are the _____. | metacarpals |
| List the three bones that fuse to form a hip (coxal) bone | ilium, ischium, pubis |
| The portion of the bony pelvis that is infeiror to the pelvic brim is the ______ pelvis; the portion that is superior to the pelvic brim is the ______ pelvis. | true (lesser) false (greater) |
| True/False: The largest carpal bone is the lunate | false |
| True/False: The anterior joint formed by the two coxal (hip) bones is the pubic symphysis. | true |
| Elbow joint statements | - when forearm is extended, the olecranon fossa receives the olecranon - the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum - the trochlea articulates with the trochlear notch - the head of the ulna articulates with he ulnar notch of the radius |
| Which of the following is the most superior of the tarsals and articulates with the distal end of the tibia? Calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, cuneiform, talus | Talus |
| Scapula statements | - the lateral border is also known as the axillary border - the acromion process articulates with the clavicle - the corocoid process is utilized for muscle attachment |
| Which is false? A. A decrease in the height of the medial longitudinal arch creates a condition known as clawfoot B. The transverse arch is formed by the navicular, cuneiforms, and bases of the five metatarsals | A |
| True statements | - The longitudinal arch has medial and lateral parts, both of which originate at the calcaneus - Arches help to absorb shocks - Arches enable the foot to support the body's weight |
| Which of the following are involved in the knee joint? Fibular notch of tibia, lateral condyle of tibia, head of fibula, greater trochanter of femur, medial condyle of femur | Lateral condyle of tibia and medial condyle of femur |
| The greater sciatic notch is located on the | ilium |
| scapula | a large, triangular, flat bone found in the posterior part of the thorax |
| clacivle | an S-shaped bone lying horizontally in the superior and anterior part of the thorax |
| humerus | articulates proximally with the scapula and distally with the radius and ulna |
| ulna | located on the medial aspect of the forearm |
| radius | located on the lateral aspect of the forearm |
| femur | the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone of the body |
| tibia | the larger, medial bone of the leg |
| fibula | the smaller, lateral bone of the leg |
| calcaneus | heel bone |
| patella | sesamoid bone that articulates with the femur and tibia |
| Olecranon | ulna |
| Olecranon fossa | humerus |
| trochlea | humerus |
| greater trochanter | femur |
| medial malleolus | tibia |
| acromial end | clavicle |
| radial tuberosity | radius |
| acetabulum | hip bone |
| lateral malleolus | fibula |
| glenoid cavity | scapula |
| coronoid process | ulna |
| linea aspera | femur |
| anterior border | tibia |
| anterior superior iliac spine | hip bone |
| fovea capitis | femur |
| greater tubercle | humerus |
| trochlear notch | ulna |
| obturator foramen | ulna and radius |
| styloid process | ulna and radius |
| A point of contact between two bones, between bone and cartilage, or between bone and teeth is called a(n) | joint, articulation, or arthrosis |
| The surgical procedure in which a severely damaged joint is replaced with an artificial joint is known as: | anthroplasty |
| True/False: Menisci are fluid-filled sacs located outside of the joint cavity to east friction between bones and softer tissue | False |
| True/False: Shrugging your shoulders involves flexion and extension | False |
| True/False: Synovial fluid becomes more viscous as movement at the joint increases | False |
| What are structural classifications on joints? | Cartilaginous, Synovial, and Fibrous |
| Which of the following joints could be classifies functionally as synarthroses? Syndesmosis, symphysis, synovial, gomphosis, suture | Gomphosis and suture |
| The most common degenerative joint disease in the elderly, often caused by wear and tear, is: | Osteoarthritis |
| Chewing your food involves which of the following? Flexion, extension, hyperextension, elevation, depression | Elevation and depression |
| Synovial fluid functions to: | - Absorb shocks at joints - Lubricate joints - Supply oxygen and nutrients to chondrocytes - Provide phagocytes to remove debris from joints |
| Synovial joint statements | - The articular capsule surrounds synovial joint, encloses synovial cavity, unites articulating bones - Fibrous membrane of articular capsule permits movement at joint - Tensile strength of fibrous membrane helps prevent bones from disarticulating |
| What keeps the the articular surfaces of synovial joints in contact and effects the range of motion? | - structure or shape of the articulating bones - strength and tension of the joint ligaments - arrangement and tension of muscles - lack of use - contact of soft parts |
| Suture | a fibrous joint that united the bones of the skull: a synarthrosis |
| Syndesmosis | a fibrous joint between the tibia and fibula: an amphiarthrosis |
| Gomphosis | the articulation between bone and teeth |
| Synchondrosis | the epiphyseal (growth) plate |
| Symphysis | joint between the two pubic bones |
| Synovial | joint with a cavity between the bones; diarthrosis |
| Synostosis | a bony joint |
| Pivot joint | rounded or pointed surface of one bone articulates with a ring formed by another bone and a ligament; allows rotation around its own axis |
| Planar joint | articulating bone surfaces are flat or slightly curved; permit gliding movement |
| Condyloid joint | convex, oval projection of one bone fits into oval depression of another bone; permits movement in two axes |
| Hinge joint | convex surface of one bone articulates with concave surface of another bone; permits flexion and extension |
| Ball-and-socket joint | ball-shaped surface articulates with cuplike depression of another bone; permits largest degree of movement in three axes |
| Saddle joint | modified condyloid joint where articulating bones resemble a rider sitting in a saddle |
| Elevation | upward movement of a body part |
| Depressions | downward movement of a body part |
| Adduction | movement of bone toward midline |
| Gliding | movement in which relatively flat bone surfaces move back-and-forth and side-to-side with respect to one another |
| Protraction | movement of a body part anteriorly in the transverse plane |
| Flexion | decrease in angle between bones |
| Retraction | movement of an anteriorly projected body part back to the anatomical position |
| Inversion | movement of the sole medially |
| Eversion | movement of the sole laterally |
| Abduction | movement of bone away from midline |
| dorsiflexion | action that occurs when you stand on your heels |
| Plantar flexion | action that occurs when you stand on your toes |
| Supination | movement of the forearm to turn the palm posteriorly |
| Pronation | movement of the forearm to turn the palm posteriorly |
| Opposition | movement of thumb across the palm to touch the tips of the fingers of the same hand |
| Extension | increase in angle between bones |
| Circumduction | movement of distal end of a part of the body in a circle |
| Rotation | bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis |
| The head of the radius articulates with: A. the radial notch of the humerus B. the capitulum of the humerus C. the trochlea of the humerus D. the coronoid process of the humerus | B. the capitulum of the humerus |
| Wilma got engaged on Valentine's Day and she is now wearing a nice ring on her ring finger. The ring is on her: A. Distal Phalanx of digit IV B. Distal phalanx of digit II C. Proximal phalanx of digit IV D. Proximal phalanx of digit II | C. Proximal phalanx of digit IV |
| linea of aspera of the femur | adductors attach to this- legs inward |
| The femur articulates with the coxal bone at the acetabulum of the hip bones |
Created by:
shannonm50