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Chem Final Review
Cards that cover all 25 lectures
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is a major source of energy for the body? | Carbohydrates |
| What is the major source of carbohydrates? | Starch |
| Simple sugars that contain four to eight carbons and only one aldehyde or ketone group | Monosaccharides |
| What type of sugars can give up electrons? | Reducing sugars / Monosaccarhides |
| What are examples of monosaccharides? | Glucose and Fructose |
| Formed by the interaction of two monosaccharides with the loss of a water molecule | Oligosaccharides |
| What is another name for oligosaccharides? | Disaccharides |
| What are examples of (oligo)disaccharides | maltose lactose and sucrose |
| Formed by interactions between many units of simple sugars. | Polysaccharides |
| What are examples of polysaccharides? | Starch and Glycogen |
| What breaks down ingested starches into disaccharides? | Salivary Amylase |
| Monosaccharides are broken down by _______ | Disaccharides |
| Transported to the liver and converted to glucose | Monosaccharides |
| Where is glycogen stored in the body? | Liver and skeletal muscle |
| Process of enzyme action on glucose to eventually form glycogen | Glycogenesis |
| Breakdown of glycogen, with the eventual formation of glucose-6-phosphate or free glucose that can be used for energy production | Glycogenolysis |
| Catabolism of glucose to pyruvate or lactate for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. (Embden-Meyerhof pathway and Krebs' cycle) | Gluconeogenesis |
| Pancreatic hormone that decreases glucose levels by increasing cellular uptake of glucose and promoting glycogenesis and lipogenesis | Insulin |
| pancreatic hormone that increases glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis | Glucagon |
| Adrenal hormone that elevates glucose levels | Epinephrine |
| Pituitary hormones that increase glucose levels | Growth Hormone and Adrenocorticotropic hormone |
| adrenal hormones that increase gluconeogenesis and eventually elevate blood glucose | Glucocorticoids |
| Stimulates glycogenolysis and increases blood glucose levels | Thyroid hormones |
| What effect does insulin have on glucose levels? | insulin decreases glucose levels |
| What effect does glucagon have on glucose levels? | glucagon increases glucose levels |
| What effect does epinephrine have on glucose levels? | epinephrine increases glucose levels |
| What effect does growth hormone and adrenocorticotropic hormone have on glucose levels? | growth hormone and adrenocorticotropic hormone increase glucose levels |
| What effect does glucocorticoids have on glucose levels? | Glucocorticoids eventually elevate blood glucose |
| What effect does thyroid hormone have on glucose levels? | thyroid hormone will increase blood glucose levels |
| This disorder occurs when fasting blood sugar level rises higher than 110 mg/dl due to a pathological disorder, such as diabetes or liver failure | Hyperglycemia |
| This disorder occurs when the fasting blood glucose level is <70 mg/dl. | Hypoglycemia |
| What conditions does hypoglycemia result from? | hormone deficiency, drug reaction, insulin excess, or a genetic disorder |
| Sugar in the urine | Glycosuria |
| Occurs when the renal threshold for glucose is exceeded during hyperglycemia | Glycosuria |
| Acute state with hyperglycemia and ketosis. Caused by an autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic beta cells. | Type 1 / Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus |
| Glucose is oxidized to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide to eventually form a colored product. Falsely low results are caused by high serum levels of uric acid, bilirubin, or ascorbic acid | Glucose oxidase method |
| Glucose becomes phosphorylated and dehydrogenated to eventually form NADPH | Hexokinase method |
| This test evaluates the insulin response challenge. Useful in evaluating pregnancy-induced diabetes and involves drawing a fasting blood specimen, followed by patient ingestion of a 75-g oral dose of glucose in liquid within a 5-minute period. | Glucose Tolerance Test |
| This test is used to evaluate diabetes. A fasting blood specimen and a specimen taken 2 hours after breakfast are collected. | 2 hour postprandial blood glucose test. |
| Organic compounds that contain both an amino group and a carboxyl group. | Amino acids |
| Proteins are composed of what? | Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Sulfur |
| How much essential amino acids be supplied? | Through dietary intake |
| What are the essential amino acids? | Valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, threonine, lysine, and histidine. |
| Produced by the removal of an amino group from an amino acid. | Ketoacids |
| Glycogenic to generate glucose precursors or Ketogenic to generate ketone bodies: | Ketoacids |
| Inherited disorder causing lack of phenylalanine to tyrosine, which results in the formation of phenylpyruvate | Phenylketonuria (PKU) |
| Disorder of decarboxylation of the ketoacids of leucine, isoleucine, and valine, which results in accumulation of ketoacids in blood, urine , and spinal fluids. | Maple Syrup urine disease (MSUD) |
| Caused by impaired enzyme activity, which results in elevated levels of homocysteine and methionine in plasma and urine. | Homocysteinuria |
| Responsible for osmotic pressure of plasma and serves as a transport protein. | Albumin |
| Immunoglobulins are _____ in water | insoluble |
| Where are proteins synthesized? | In the liver (serum proteins) or by B-cells (immunoglobulins) |
| Where does protein catabolism take place? | GI tract, kidneys, and liver. |
| Peptide chains that hydrolyze to amino acids | Simple proteins |
| Composed of protein and a nonprotein substance, such as lipid, carbohydrate, or metals | Conjugated proteins |
| What are the functions of protein? | Tissue nutrition, water distribution, plasma buffer, substance transport, and structural support |
| Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions but do not alter the equilibrium point of the reaction | Enzymes |
| What is the composition of an enzyme? | Composed of a specific amino acid sequence (primary), which results in a stearic arrangement (secondary) that becomes folded (tertiary) |
| What does the active site of an enzyme bind? | a substrate and an allosteric site |
| Catalyze an oxidation-reduction reaction. Examples include lactate dehydrogenase and G6PD | Oxidoreductases |
| Catalyze the transfer of a group other than hydrogen. Examples are aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, creatine kinase, and gamma-gluamyl transferase. | Transferases |
| Expresses the relationship between the velocity of any enzymatic reaction and the substrate concentration. | Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) |
| Substrate concentration at which the enzyme yields half the possible maximum velocity of the reaction. | Km |
| Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) formula | V = Vmax [S] / ( Km + [S] ) |
| The reaction rate is directly proportional to substrate concentration. With enzyme excess, the reaction rate steadily increases as more substrate is added until the substrate saturates all available enzymes. | First-order kinetics |
| The reaction rate is dependent on enzyme concentration only. When product forms, the excess enzyme combines with excess free substrate. | Zero-order kinetics |
| When exceeded by substrate concentration, causes the velocity of the reaction to be proportional to the enzyme concentration | Enzyme Concentration |
| Each enzyme operates maximally at a specific ____ | pH |
| How will temperature affect the rate of a chemical reaction? | Increased temperature increases the rate by increasing the movement of molecules |
| How does the cofactor concentration affect the velocity of an enzymatic reaction? | Increasing the cofactor concentration increases the velocity |
| Binds to the active site of the enzyme, causing Km to increase | Competitive inhibitors |
| Binds at a place other than the active site, causing Vmax to decrease | Noncompetitive inhibitor |
| Binds to the ES complex; both Vmax and Km decrease | Uncompetitive inhibitor |
| How can enzyme activity be measured? | Either as increase in product concentration, a decrease in substrate concentration, a decrease in coenzyme concentration or an increase in concentration of altered coenzyme |
| Performed after a reaction proceeds for a designated length of time, then is stopped. Measurement is made of the amount of reaction that has occurred. | Endpoint measurements |
| Multiple measurements of absorbance change made at specific time intervals | Kinetic measurements |
| Amount of enzyme that catalyzes a reaction of 1 micromol of substrate per minute under specific conditions. | International Unit of enzyme Activity |
| Hydrolyzes phosphate esters, but the function of this enzyme is relatively unknown | Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) |
| Where are significant amounts of ALP found? | Liver, bone, intestines, kidney, and placenta |
| How can improper anticoagulant use affect ALP values? | Decreased values |
| How can a hemolyzed sample affect an ALP value? | Give a false positive |
| What is the diagnostic significance of ALP? | Elevation during the third trimester of pregnancy and in persons with liver disease, bone disease, hyperthyroidism, or diabetes mellitus. |
| What are the four isoenzymes of ALP | Bone, liver, intestinal, and placental fractions |
| Transfers an amino group between aspartate and keto acids. Vitamin B6 is the coenzyme in this reaction | Aspartate transaminase (AST) |
| Where is AST found? | cardiac tissue, liver, skeletal muscles, and RBCs |
| Catalyzes the transfer of an amino group from alanine to alpha-ketoglutarate with the formation of glutamate and pyruvate. | Alanine Transaminase (ALT) |
| Where is ALT localized? | Liver, some in the heart, skeletal muscle, and RBCs |
| Clinical significance of ALT | evaluation of hepatocellular disorders |
| Catalyzes a reaction responsible for the formation of ATP in tissues, especially contractile systems. | Creatine Kinase |
| CK is involved in the storage of what? | High-energy creatine phosphate |
| Where is CK localized? | Skeletal muscle, brain, and cardiac muscle in addition to many other tissues. |
| What is clinical significance of CK | Elevation in muscle disorders. CK and one of its isoenzymes is a sensitive indicator of acute myocardial infarction and muscular distrophy. |
| Catalyzes the interconversion of lactic and pyruvic acids. It is a hydrogen-transfer enzyme that uses the coenzyme NAD. | Lactate Dehydrogenase (LD) |
| Where is LD distrubuted? | Widely distributed in all tissues, with high concentrations found in the heart and liver. Low levels in RBCs, skeletal muscle, and kidneys |
| What is the diagnostic significance of LD? | Diagnosis of cardiac, hepatic, skeletal, muscle, and renal disease. Highest LD levels are seen in persons with pernicious anemia, viral hepatitis, cirrhosis, and crush injuries. |
| Transfers a gamma-gluamyl residue to an amino acid. This function is involved in peptide and protein synthesis. | Gamma-glutamyl-transferase (GGT) |
| Where is GGT distributed? | Tissues ( Kidneys, brain, prostate, pancreas, and liver.) Urine contains a significant amount |
| GGT is measured by what method? | Szasz assay |
| What is the significance of GGT? | Elevated in almost all hepatobiliary disorders or biliary tract obstruction as well as in patients taking enzyme-inducing drugs like warfarin, phenobarbital, and dilatin |
| What are the GGT levels in a patient with acute pancreatitis | Increased GGT levels |
| This enzyme is useful in the detection of alcoholism and the monitoring of alcohol intake by patients during treatment | GGT |
| A hydrolase that catalyzes the breakdown of starch and glycogen and produces products consisting of glucose, maltose, and dextrins. | Amylase (AMS) |
| Where is AMS distributed? | Pancreas and salivary glands, as well as skeletal muscle. |
| What is the clinical significance of AMS | Useful in diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. AMS levels rise 2 to 12 hours after the onset of an attack and peak at 24 hours. |
| The measurement of radiant energy absorbed by a solution. This measurement can be related to the concentration of a substance in the solution. | Absorbance Spectrophotometry |
| This measures the concentration through the detection of absorbance of electromagnetic radiation by atoms instead of molecules. It is used to measure concentration of metals that are not easily excited | Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry |
| the number of moles of particle per kilogram of water and depends only on the number of particles, not the types present. | Osmolality |
| Migration of charged particles in some medium when an electrical field is applied. Depending on the charge of the molecules, negatively charged particles migrate toward the positive electrode (anode) and positive charged move to the negative (cathode) | Electrophoresis |
| In electrophoresis, what is DIRECTLY proportional to rate of movement? | Charge of molecule |
| In electrophoresis, what is INVERSELY proportional to the rate of movement? | Size of the molecule |
| In electrophoresis, increased current increases what? | Migration rate |
| In electrophoresis, increased ionic strength decreased what? | migration rate |
| In electrophoresis, how does decreased pH affect migration rate? | Slows it down |
| Chemical assay based on the highly specific and tight, noncovalent binding of antibodies to target molecules. | Immunoassay |
| Technique used to separate complex mixtures on the basis of different physical interactions between the individual compounds and the stationary phase of the system. The goal is to produce "fractions" for quantitation. | Chromatography |
| Semi-quantitative screening method | Thin Layer Chromatography |
| Layer of absorbent material is coated on a piece of glass. spots of sample are applied. solvent is placed in container and migrates up the thin layer by capillary action. | Thin Layer Chromatography |
| How is retention factor calculated? | Rf = Distance component moves / (total distance - distance solvent front moves) |
| Quantitative results for drug testing. Highly specific and sensitive. Apparatus consists of a pressure pump, gel filled column, sample injector, detector, and recorder. | High Performance Liquid Chromatography |
| Separates mixtures of volatile compounds. Solvent is a gas, sample is vaporized, and detectors are thermal conductivity or flame ionization. | Gas Chromatography |
| Used in drug identification. Special detector can be used to measure the fragmentation patterns of ions. | Gas Chromatography Mass Spec |
| What are the Non-Protein Nitrogenous materials? | Urea, Creatinine, uric acid |
| Serves to process substances that have been absorbed from the gut and then transferred to the blood for use by other cells of the body. | Liver |
| Involved with processing lipids. Composed of bile acids, salts, pigments, and cholesterol. | Bile |
| Where are bile salts formed? | Hepatocytes |
| Where are bile salts stored? | Gall-bladder |
| Major bile pigment formed from the breakdown of hemoglobin when aged RBCs are phagocytized. | Bilirubin |
| How is hemoglobin broken down? | globin (reused) + iron (reused) + porphyrin (excreted) + biliverdin (reduced to bilirubin) |
| Bilirubin found in the liver that is water soluble | Conjugated Bilirubin |
| This substance floats out of the bile canaliculi and into the gut, where it is eventually broken down to form Urobilinogen, which is oxidized to produce urobilin and excreted in the stool. | Conjugated bilirubin |
| Yellowish discoloration of skin. Caused by abnormal bilirubin metabolism or by retention of bilirubin | jaundice |
| Result of excessive bilirubin presented to the liver. It can occur in newborns and in people with hemolytic anemia or ineffective erythropoiesis. This condition produces increased serum unconjugated bilirubin. | PREHEPATIC jaundice |
| Present in people with hepatobiliary disease. This disorder exhibits increases in both unconjugated and conjugated bilirubin levels. | HEPATIC Jaundice |
| Produced by obstruction of the flow of bile into the gut either by gallstones or a tumor, which causes increased conjugated bilirubin levels in serum and urine, but low Urobilinogen levels in urine and colorless stool. | POST HEPATIC jaundice |
| Defined as destruction of the liver’s architecture. The leading cause of this disease is alcoholism | Cirrhosis |
| Liver destruction caused by viral infection, although the etiology of this disease is unknown. Ammonia accumulates in the liver and blood. | Reyes Syndrome |
| Defined as inflammation of the liver and subsequent hepatocellular damage caused by bacterial infection, drugs, toxins, or viral infections. | Hepatitis |
| Infectious hepatitis. Transmitted by contamination of food and water | Hepatitis A |
| Serum hepatitis. Transmitted through parenteral injection or through exchange of bodily secretions | Hepatitis B |
| Transmitted parenterally through blood transfusions, body piercings, and inoculations and has become more common. Leading cause of liver disease. | Hepatitis C |
| The GI Tract is composed of what 5 regions? | mouth, stomach, duodenum, jejunum-ileum, and large intestine |
| Produced in the parietal cells of the stomach, this is required for the transport of B12 across the intestinal wall | Intrinsic Factor |
| Highly vascularized organ connected to the small intestine by the ampulla of Vater. Considered to be both an endocrine gland that synthesizes hormones and exocrine gland that provides digestive enzymes to aid in digestion | Pancreas |
| What type of cells produce glucagon? | alpha cells |
| What type of cells are responsible for making insulin? | beta cells |
| What cells produce gastrin and somatostatin ? | delta cells |
| Breaks down starch and glycogen and is used to diagnose acute pancreatitis | amylase |
| Hydrolyzes fats to produce alcohols and fatty acids with elevated levels present in people who have acute pancreatitis | Lipase |
| Functions in protein breakdown | trypsin |
| Autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized by pulmonary disease and intestinal malabsorption caused by lack of pancreatic enzyme secretions | Cystic Fibrosis |
| Associated with alcohol abuse or gallbladder disease and also occurs in patients with lipid disorders and is caused by the release of pancreatic enzymes from cells into the surrounding pancreatic tissue | Pancreatitis |
| Multifactoral disease that occurs when the pancreas can no longer produce insulin, which leads to hyperglycemia. This disorder almost always destroys the beta cells in the islets | Diabetes Mellitus |
| Fatal disease that affects the ducts in the pancreas. Insulinoma is a tumor of the beta cells in the islets that leads to increased circulating insulin and hypoglycemia | Pancreatic Cancer |
| Determines the secretory capacity of the pancreas. It involves intubation and gathering of pancreatic fluid after stimulation with secretin, followed by measurement of the fluid volume | Secretin test |
| Determines the presence of increased fats in feces, which is a disorder almost always associated with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. | Quantitative fecal fat examination |
| What specimen is collected for a Quantitative fecal fat examination | a 72 hour fecal specimen. Fats extracted with ether and weighed. |
| Measured to diagnose cystic fibrosis. | Sweat electrolytes |
| What is used to stimulate sweating on the skin during a sweat electrolyte test? | Pilocarpine nitrate |
| What is the normal range of serum protein? | 6.5 to 8.3 g / dL |
| Most widely used method of protein determination | biuret method |
| Cupric (Cu 2+) ions react with peptide bonds to form a violet color proportional to the number of peptide bonds present | biuret method |
| Based on the ability of proteins to bind dyes. Albumin binds dyes with the strongest affinity | dye-binding method |
| Caused by kidney disease, blood loss, malnutrition, and liver disease | hypoproteinemia |
| Observed in people with dehydration or excess production of gamma-globulins | hyperproteinemia |
| Caused by a variety of disorders, including a poor diet, liver dysfunction, GI inflammation, and renal disease | Decreased serum albumin |
| Alpha2 macroglobulin, increased in inflammatory conditions, burns, and rheumatic disease. Decreased levels are seen in people with transfusion reactions or hemolytic disease. | haptoglobin |
| Alpha2 macroglobulin, decreased in people with Wilson’s disease and states of malnutrition | Ceruloplasmin |
| Levels are increased during iron deficiency anemia | Transferrin |
| Increases in this indicate infection, liver disease, Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia (IgM) , multiple myeloma, or autoimmune reactions. | Immunoglobulin |
| Ions capable of carrying an electric charge | Electrolytes |
| Most abundant extracellular cation | Sodium |
| Essential for transmitting nerve impulses | Sodium |
| Low blood volume induces secretion of renin, which raises blood pressure and causes production of ADH. | Renin-ADH system |
| Low blood volume induces secretion of renin, which induces production of aldosterone by the adrenal glands | renin-aldosterone system |
| Low serum sodium | hyponatremia |
| Caused by gastrointestinal loss, burns or renal problems. Relative decrease of sodium caused by excess body water. | hyponatremia |
| Increased sodium caused by excessive water loss, as in sweating or diarrhea. | hypernatremia |
| Major intracellular cation that regulates activity at the neuromuscular junction, as well as cardiac muscle contraction and pH. | Potassium |
| Controls the amount of potassium in circulation | dietary intake |
| Induces potassium reabsorption and secretion by the renal tubules by exchanging it for sodium | Aldosterone |
| Low serum potassium, result of decreased dietary intake, gastrointestinal loss, or renal dysfunction. Can produced irregular heartbeat | Hypokalemia |
| High serum potassium. Rare. Occurs following excessive dietary intake, adrenal failure, blood transfusions, or crush injuries. | Hyperkalemia |
| Major extracellular anion. Acts to maintain osmotic pressure, keeps body hydrated, and maintains electric neutrality via interaction with sodium or carbon dioxide | Chloride |
| Moves chloride into RBCs as bicarbonate diffuses out to produce electro neutrality | Chloride Shift |
| Caused by salt loss during renal disease , diabetic ketoacidosis, or prolonged vomiting | Hypochloremia |
| Caused by dehydration, acute renal failure, prolonged diarrhea with loss of sodium bicarbonate, and salicylate intoxication | hyperchloremia |
| Second most abundant anion in the extracellular fluid | Bicarbonate |
| Major component of the blood buffering system. Accounts for 90% of total blood carbon dioxide, and maintains charge neutrality in the cell. | Bicarb |
| Regulation of bicarb is achieved by the _____ | Kidneys |
| Semi permeable membrane used to develop a potential between two different ion concentrations | Ion selective electrodes |
| Silver ions are combined with chloride. Excess free silver ions are noted, elapsed time is relative to the chloride concentration | Amperometric –coulometric titration |
| Difference between unmeasured anions and unmeasured cations. Normal range is 6 to 18 mmol. | Anion gap |
| Calculation of an Anion Gap | ( Na+ + K+ ) – (CL- + HCo3- ) |
| Assures the maintenance of a constant blood pH through physiological buffers, the respiratory system, and the renal system | Acid-Base balance |
| Three physiological buffers act to maintain a constant pH : | Carbonic acid – bicarb system ; Hemoglobin ; Phosphoric acid – phosphate system |
| What system controls bicarbonate concentration? | renal system |
| Henderson – Hasselbalch equation: | pH = pK + log ( cA / cHA ) |
| Results from hypoventilation, which causes a decrease in carbon dioxide elimination. Compensation occurs by the kidneys increasing the reabsorption of bicarbonate. | Respiratory Acidosis |
| Results from an increase in ventilation, resulting in excessive elimination of carbon dioxide. Compensation occurs by the kidneys excreting more bicarbonate. | Respiratory Alkalosis |
| Occurs in many disorders and results in a decrease in bicarb levels. The lungs compensate by hyperventilating. | Metabolic acidosis |
| Produced in many disorders and results from an increase in bicarb levels. Lungs compenstate by hypoventilation | Metabolic Alkalosis |
| These substances arise from the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids | Non-Protein Nitrogenous Materials |
| Major excretory product of protein metabolism and is synthesized in the liver from carbon dioxide and ammonia arising from the deamination of amino acids. Excreted by the kidneys | Urea |
| Typically caused by decreased renal blood flow to the kidneys from congestive heart failure, shock, dehydration, decrease in blood volume, greater protein breakdown, or high-protein diet | Prerenal Azotemia |
| Produced by renal failure | Renal Azotemia |
| Caused by an obstruction anywhere in the renal system | Postrenal Azotemia |
| Toxic condition involving a very high serum level of urea accompanied by renal failure | Uremia |
| Made in the liver from amino acids and used in muscle as an energy source | Creatine |
| Anhydrous state of Creatine, which is excreted into the plasma in an amount proportional to muscle mass and then excreted in the urine. | Creatinine |
| Involves the reaction of Creatinine with picric acid to form a reddish chromogen. Absorbance is measured colorimetrically | Jaffe reaction |
| Uses various enzymes and hydrogen peroxide to form a colored product | Kinetic reaction |
| Estimate of the GFR obtained by measuring plasma Creatinine and its excretion into urine. Test requires a 24 hour urine specimen and blood sample for serum Creatinine determination. | Creatinine Clearance |
| Calculate Creatinine Clearance | UV / P x 1.73 / A |
| Normal blood urea nitrogen (BUN) : Creatinine ratio | 10 to 20 : 1 |
| Higher BUN : Creatinine ratios are indicative of what ? | Elevation of BUN is caused by Prerenal rather than renal causes |
| Synthesized in the liver from the breakdown of nucleic acids and transported to the kidneys for reabsorption | Uric acid |
| An elevated uric acid level is indicative of what ? | gout, increased nuclear breakdown, renal disease, or toxemia of pregnancy |
| A decreased uric acid level is indicative of what? | severe liver or kidney disease |
| Formed by the deamination of amino acids. Used by the liver to produce urea and is not excreted by the kidneys | Ammonia |
| Increased ammonia levels are caused by what? | severe liver dysfunction or inadequate blood circulation through the liver |
| During the chloride shift, chloride moves from plasma into what site: | RED BLOOD CELL |
| In the Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, is the gastric level increased or decreased: | INCREASED |
| What vitamin functions in bone formation and the promotion of calcium and phosphorous absorption? | Vitamin D |
| What is the most reliable method for methanol determination: | GC |
| What term describes a decreased serum sodium: | Hyponatremia |
| What is the effect of hemolysis on serum amylase levels: | NO EFFECT |
| What are the two end products of sucrose hydrolysis: | GLUCOSE AND FRUCTOSE |
| What is function of lipoproteins: | TRANSPORTATION |
| What solvents are used to extract the color due to Urobilinogen in the Watson-Swartz test?: | CHLOROFORM AND BUTANOL |
| A patient has a blood pH of 7.23 and a pCO2 of 69 mm hg , what state is demonstrated by their values? | RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS |
| What is hypernatremia: | High levels of sodium in the blood |
| What is the hydrogen-ion selective membrane made of on the pH electrode: | GLASS |
| In what organ is renin produced: | Kidney |
| Bromcrestle green is used for the determination of what protein: | ALBUMIN (DIBINDING PROCEDURE) |
| Is the serum lipase level in cystic fibrosis increased or decreased: | DECREASED |
| What enzyme hydrolyzes triglycerides: | LIPASE |
| What are 4 organ sources of alkaline phosphatase: | INTESTINES, LIVER, BONE, PLACENTA |
| In a full term pregnancy is the lecithin-sphingomyelin ratio of 4:1 NL or ABNL: | NORMAL |
| Does a decrease in blood pH stimulate or decrease respiration: | STIMULATE |
| Thyroid hormone synthesis begins with the iodination of what amino acid: | TYROSINE |
| What is a zwitter ion: | CHARGED AMINO ACID |
| What organ produces albumin: | LIVER |
| What 2 ions are involved in the chloride shift: | CHLORIDE & BICARBONATE |
| If serum and urine Creatinine and urine flow rate are known, what else is needed to calc. Creatinine Clearance? | BODY SURFACE AREA |
| What alkaline reaction combines protein peptide bonds with copper ions? | BIURET |
| Under normal conditions, do levels of GH and Insulin vary directly or indirectly: | INDIRECTLY |
| How is blood phosphorus influence by increase in Para Thyroid Hormone: | DECREASED |
| What equation defines the dissociation constant and is used to calculate pH of buffer solution: | HENDERSON-HASSELBALCH EQUATION |
| What does the Zimmerman reaction measure: | 17-KETOSTEROIDS |
| Calcitonin has the opposite effect of what hormone: | PARA THYROID HORMONE |
| What hormone lowers the level of Ca and Phosphate in the plasma and inhibits bone resorption: | CALCITONIN |
| What substance is analyzed using the phospho-tungstic acid: | URIC ACID |
| What cation is most prevalent in normal human plasma: | Sodium |
| In metabolic acidosis, is patient bicarb NL, INC, or DEC? | DECREASED |
| In what form is CO2 mainly transported in the blood? | BICARBONATE |
| What serum electrophoretic pattern is characteristic of nephrotic syndrome: | DEC in ALBUMIN AND INCREASE IN ALPHA 2 |
| Is serum iron increased or decreased in hemolytic anemia: | INCREASED |
| Amino glycoside toxicity is associated with what organ: | KIDNEY |
| What pigment is formed from the oxidation of Urobilinogen: | UROBILIN |
| How is the level of thyroid binding globulin affected by pregnancy?: | INCREASED |
| What affect does parathyroid hormone have on calcium: | INCREASED |
| Porphobilinogen is formed by the dehydrogenation of what acid | ALA (AMINO LEVELINIC ACID) |
| What form of bilirubin is carried by albumin in the blood and is insoluble in water? : | UNCONJUGATED BILIRUBIN |
| What is the function of Creatinine in the body: | NO FUNCTION / WASTE PRODUCT |
| In a bilirubin determination, if the specimen is exposed to light, how is result affected? | DECREASED |
| Does hyperventilation occur in respiratory acidosis or alkalosis? | ALKALOSIS |
| What chemical causes the original color in the biuret reagent? | COPPER |
| What is the specific site of epinephrine synthesis: | ADRENAL MEDULLA |
| Where is ACTH synthesized: | PITUTARY GLAND |
| What 4 elements does urea contain: | NITROGEN, HYDROGEN, CARBON, OXYGEN |
| Does pancreatic insufficiency exhibit an abnormal d-zylose? | NO |
| Is a urine arsenic level of 50 mg per 24 hr NL or INC? | INC |
| What is the connective tissue order due to a deficiency of vitamin C? | SCURVY |
| Is thymine a water soluble vitamin? | YES |
| In a forensic strangulation case, is serum amylase inc or dec? | INCREASED |
| How does an increase in altitude affect pCO2 and pO2? | LOWER BOTH |
| What enzyme changes angiotensinogen to angiotensin: | RENIN |
| In what area of the adrenal gland is cortisol synthesized: | ADRENAL CORTEX |
| What organ conjugates bilirubin: | LIVER |
| When light is absorbed at one wavelength and emitted at a longer wavelength, what is it called? | FLUORESCENCE |
| In what form is glucose stored in the liver? | GLYCOGEN |
| What sugar when hydrolyzed yields glucose and Galactose: | LACTOSE |
| What is the NL serum lithium level? | ZERO |
| In a NL full term amniotic fluid, is there more lecithin or sphingomyelin? | LECITHIN |
| In obstruction of the common bile duct is urine urobilinogen, NL, INC or DEC? | DECREASED |
| In what gland is estrodiol produced? | OVARIES |
| What are the major metabolites of the androgen hormones? | 17-KETOSTEROIDS |
| Name two substances that are inc in plasma and urine in pheochromocytoma: | EPINEPHRINE and VMA |
| Chemical substance that is produced and secreted into the blood by an organ or tissue and has a specific effect on target tissue located away from the site of production | Hormone |
| Collection of hormones, carrier proteins, and other components form what system: | endocrine system |
| How are hormones classified? | by their tissue origin or their structure |
| Hypothalamus | thyrotropin-releasing hormone, cotricotropin-releasing factor |
| Anterior pituitary | thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), FSH, leteinizing hormone, prolactin, growth hormone |
| Posterior pituitary | vasopressin, oxytocin |
| Adrenal medulla | epinephrine, norepinephrine |
| Adrenal Cortex | cortisol, aldosterone, 11-deoxycortisol |
| Thyroid | triodothyronine, thyroxine, Calcitonin. |
| Parathyroids | parathyroid hormone |
| Pancreas | insulin, glucagon |
| GI tract | gastrin |
| Ovaries | Estrogens and progesterone |
| Placenta | Progesterone, HCG, Human placental lactogen |
| Testes | testosterone , other androgens |
| Kidneys | 1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D, erythropoietin |
| Are hormones water soluble or insoluble? | water-soluble |
| Do hormones require transport proteins to move through the blood? | NO |
| Involved in the regulation of sexual development and characteristics | Steroid hormones |
| Where does hormone binding occur? | on or within a cell |
| Precursors of peptide hormones | prohormones |
| Release of a hormone that regulated prior steps in the releasing process. | Feedback control |
| Steroid and thyroid hormones are bound to what? | albumin, sex hormone-binding protein, or cortisol-binding globulin |
| Amines are transported by what ? | serum proteins and thyroxine-binding globulin |
| What fraction of a hormone exhibits activity? | only the free portion |
| What is responsible for hormone production? | anterior pituitary |
| Serves as a storage area for certain hormones produced by the hypothalamus | posterior pituitary |
| Part of the CNS that lies at the base of the brain above the pituitary | hypothalamus |
| Occurs when the stimulating hormone induces production of a hormone, elevated levels of which turn off pituitary release of the stimulating hormone. | Negative Feedback |
| Occurs when a structure secretes a hormone in response to a stimulating hormone released from the pituitary gland. The released hormone induces more stimulating hormone to be released from the pituitary gland. | Positive feedback |
| Primary disorders focus on what? | disorders of the pituitary gland |
| secondary disorders focus on what? | disorders of the hypothalamus or may relate to ectopic production of pituitary hormones by nonendocrine tumors or to the hyposecretion of hormone by the target tissue. |
| hyposecretion in children can often lead to what disease? | pituitary dwarfism |
| hypersecretion of FSH and LH can lead to what? | sexual precocity and is usually a result of brain tumors in the region of the hypothalamus. |
| What regulates water reabsportion and blood pressure by affecting the renal tubules and the arterioles? | Anti-diuretic hormone |
| What is the adrenal cortex comprised of? | chromaffin cells |
| What are three adrenal hormones? | glucocorticoids , mineralocorticosteroids, and catecholamines |
| Steroid hormones produced in the adrenal cortex | glucocorticoids, mineralocorticosteroids |
| Amine hormones produced in the adrenal medulla | catecholamines |
| These adrenal hormones are synthesized from cholesterol | glucocorticoids and mineral corticosteroids |
| Primary glucocorticoid produced and secreted by the adrenal cortex | Cortisol |
| What are the functions of cortisol | carb, lipid, a protein metabolism; suppression of inflammation; stimulating gluconeogenesis; increasing urine production; and stimulating erythropoiesis |
| What are the target tissues of glucocorticoid action | kidney glomerulus and renal tubules, bone marrow stem cells, hepatocytes, and adipose tissue |
| How are mineral corticosteroids transported? | bound to CBP and albumin |
| What is the primary action of mineral corticosteroids | regulation of electrolytes |
| Primary mineralocorticoid produced and secreted by the adrenal cortex | aldosterone |
| What are the functions of aldosterone | stimulating sodium resorption in the distal convoluted tubules in exchange for potassium and hydrogen ; increasing blood volume ; regulating extracellular fluid volume |
| What are the target tissues of mineralocorticoids? | distal renal tubules and the large intestine |
| How is aldosterone secretion regulated? | via the renin/angiotensin system |
| Where is norepinephrine synthesized | in the CNS |
| What are the functions of catecholamines? | mobilization of energy stores by increasing blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugar level ; neurotransmitter actions ; release in response to pain and emotional stress to mobilize organs |
| What are the tissue targets of catecholamines? | liver and adipose tissue |
| 80% of catecholamines are excreted into the urine as what? | vanillymandelic acid (VMA) |
| Excess cortisol production, either at the level of the adrenal gland or by increased release of ACTH | Cushing syndrome |
| Excess aldosterone production with symptoms of hypertension | hyperaldosteronism |
| Adrenal hypofunction or insufficiency | hypoadrenalism |
| Primary hypoadrenalism disease involving the adrenal cortex | Addison’s disease |
| What is the major disorder of the adrenal medulla? | pheochromocytoma |
| Bilobed endocrine gland located in the lower part of the neck that is composed of groups of cells called follicles | thyroid gland |
| Follicular cells of the thyroid gland produce what hormones? | thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) |
| Parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland produce what? | Calcitonin |
| What do thyroid hormones require for their synthesis? | iodine |
| Is there more T3 or T4 in circulation? | T3 |
| 98% of circulating T3 and T4 is bound to what? | thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) |
| Thyroid-releasing hormone is released by what organ? | brain |
| Serum level of thyroid hormone that is insufficient to provide for the metabolic needs of cells. | hypothyroidism |
| Symptoms of this disease include: goiters, fatigue, impairment of mental processes, and loss of appetite | Hypothyroidism |
| Inadequate secretion of thyroid hormones caused by a damaged or surgically removed thyroid gland | primary hypothyroidism |
| Decreased production of TSH caused by pituitary disorder leading to low serum levels of thyroid hormones | secondary hypothyroidism |
| This is caused by hypothalamic failure leading to a lack of TRH production | tertiary hypothyroidism |
| Genetic abnormality in the immune system and involves massive infiltrations of the thyroid gland by lymphocytes | Hashimoto’s disease |
| Excessive thyroid hormone in circulation | hyperthyroidism |
| Symptoms of this disease include weight loss, loss of muscle mass, hyperactivity, quick fatigability, insomnia, increased sweating, nervousness, palpitations, goiter, and bulging eyes | hyperthyroidism |
| Autoimmune disorder that occurs sex times more frequently in women than men. Immunoglobulins stimulate the thyroid gland by binding to TSH receptors. | Graves’ Disease |
| Involved in the metabolism of both calcium and phosphorus by the kidney and bone | parathyroid hormone |
| Mineral proved to be essential for heart muscle contraction, hemostasis, and cell responsiveness | calcium |
| Produced by parafollicular cells in the thyroid | Calcitonin |
| Serum calcium levels rise to >102 mg/dL or are sustained at levels >100 mg/L. | hypercalcemia |
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ashleywest16
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