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Anatomy Midterm
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Homeostasis | maintaining body conditions within a narrow range, 3 key parts receptors, intergrating center(decides), effector(carries out), feedback loops maintain this |
| Negative feedback | Reduce amounto of change to get back to set point, more common ex; body temp regulation , nerves in brainstem monitor blood temp and send info to hypothalamus in brain, if blood temp decrease trigger heat saving mechanisms, oppisite if it increases |
| Positive feedback | temporarily increase the amount of change, moving further from set point at first before returning, ex;labor contractions to birth, blood clots, fever, potential to be dangerous |
| Set point | average condition the body fluctuates around |
| Dehydration synthesis | water is released to open up bonds, one monomer loses OH to make polymers |
| Hydrolysis | addition of H20 to break down polymers into monomers |
| Carbohydrates | =hydrated water, functions= energy, strucutral purpose for cell and DNA/RNA composed of C, H, O there are monosaccharides(monomers), disaccharides, polysaccharides, if carbs are not needed for energy get stored as glycogen or converted to lipids |
| Monosaccharides | monomers/building blocks of carbohydrates, glucose or fructose most common |
| Lipids | hydrophobic, composed of C,H,O usally more h then O, more calories then carbs, five types:fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids |
| Fatty acids | main monomer, chan of carbon atoms, two types saturated: single bonds between carbons, every carbon in chain bonded to as many atoms, solid at room temp, a lot=problem, unsaturated: carbons bonded to few atoms, double bonded. liquid at room temp |
| Triglycerides | composed of 3 fatty acids and a glycerol. Bonds formed by dehydration synthesis, most abundant lipid, energy storage, insulation, help maintain body heat, protect organs with visceral fat |
| Proteins | monomers=amino acids, has four structural levels, primary: one polypeptide chain, second: two types of alpha helix and beta pleated sheet, tertiary: overall 3d shape of protein, Quaternary: two or more polypeptide chains |
| Amino acids | monomer of protein, has 3 parts: amine group(NH2) gives basic properties, Acid group(COOH)-allows them to act as acids, R group-makes amino acids chemically unique |
| Nucleic Acids | Elements that make up: C, H, O, N, P, monomers=nucleotides, 3 parts of it = nitrogen containing base(A, U, G, C, T), pentose group, phosphate group, Two types DNA 2 strands (deoxyribose)and RNA 1 strand(ribose), Messenger, Transfer, ribosomal |
| ATP | provides a form of chemical energy that all body cells can use without it molecules cannot be made or broken down, cells can't maintain membrane boundaries all life process stop, it's a modified RNA nucleotide(3 P instead of one) hydrolysis breaks it down |
| Axillary | the region under the shoulder joint where arm connects to the shoulder ex armpits |
| Brachial | part of the upper limb, the arm |
| Patellar | located at front of knee |
| Lumbar | lower back region of spinal column |
| Sacral | at the bottom of the spine in between the last segment of the lumbar spine and coccyx |
| Tarsal | the hind/midfoot region make up the ankle |
| Femoral | thigh region relating to femur |
| Thoracic | chest area between neck and abdomen |
| Squamous | thin, flat often have angular contours when viewed from above ex:cells that line esophagus, cells that cover skin |
| Stellate | multiple extensions giving them star like shape ex:nerve cells |
| Cuboidal | are squarish and approximately as tall as they are wide ex:liver cells |
| Columnar | taller than wide ex: line the intestines |
| Fusiform | smooth cells, thick in the middle and tapered foward ex:muscle cell |
| Polygonal | have irregular angular shapes w four, fives or more side ex:liver cells |
| Spheroid/ovoid | round to oval ex:egg cells and fat cells |
| Discoid | disc shaped ex:red blood cells |
| Phospholipid | they have hydrophillic polar heads and hydrophobic core, structure: glycerol back bone 2 fatty acids chains a phosphate group( gives negative charge), foundation of cell membrane allows for selectivity of membrane |
| Carrier protein | bind to molecules to move them to the other side of the membrane, may require energy=pumps |
| Receptors | relay information from chemical signals usually specifc for one particular messenger |
| Second-messengers | messenger binds to receptors and trigger a second messenger inside the cytoplasm, involves both transmembrane and preipheral proteins |
| Enzymes | catalyze reactions=accelerate them ex:digestion and break down excessive hormones to limit overstimulation of cell |
| Integral proteins | a type of membrane protein, transmembrane-extend full width of cell membrane |
| Peripheral proteins | a type of membrane protein, not all the way through-typically adhere to inner membrane |
| Cell-adhesion molecules | (cams) most cells need to be attached to extracellular material and to each other, sticks cells to each other and surroundings important for growth and survival, they are required for tissues to form and structure exception: blood cells |
| Diffusion | type of passive transport, movement from high conc. to low conc., can be impacted by temp(warmer=fast), larger difference between conc.(=faster), size of molecule(smaller=fast). diffusion done by small molecules, lipid soluble, helped by carrier protein |
| Facilitated Diffusion | help from membrane proteins, done by large, lipid insoluble molcules ex:glucose high to low conc. |
| Concentration gradient | passive transport=high to low conc is going with the conc gradient active transport=low to high conc. going against gradient needs help |
| Osmosis | diffusion of water, occur quickly through aquaporins which are created by membrane proteins to help bypass hydrophobic core, three types isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic |
| Hypotonic | type of osmosis, =cell swell/burst, water conc. outside cell is high so water rushes in to balance environment. |
| Hypertonic | type of osmosis, cell shrinks water conc. outside cell is low so water rushes out to balance environment |
| Isotonic | type of osmosis, equilibrium, water conc. in and out of the cell is equal |
| Carrier-mediated transport | specificity-mem proteins only carry certain items, transport max-max amt of molecules being moved(total sat), moves items to otehr side of mem unchanged, 3 kinds uniport,symport,antiport, ex:faciliated diffusion and active transport |
| Endocytosis | type of active transport in vesicle, bring into the cell, three types:phagocytosis,pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis(most selective bcz material must bond w/receptor for vesicle to form) |
| Phagocytosis | type of endocytosis, cell eating, ingestion of solids |
| Pinocytosis | type of endocytosis, cell drinking, ingestion of liquids |
| Exocytosis | type of active transport in vesicle, secrete out of the cell |
| Ectoderm | outermost layer of tissue ex:nerve and epidermis |
| Endoderm | innermost layer of tissue ex: lung, stomach, pancreas, liver, intestine |
| Mesoderm | middle layer of tissue ex:cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, urinary |
| Simple epithelium | one layer of cells on top of basement membrane, all cells touch the basement membrane so equal access to resources underneath |
| Stratified epithelium | 2-20 layers of cellls so not all cells touch basement mem. deeepest layer may be diffferent shape than surface, constant mitosis and old cells get pushed towards surface. |
| Basement membrane | layer of collagen and glycopproteins between the epithelium and connective tissue, cells coser to this will be more plump/healthier |
| Connective tissue | most abundant tissue in body, has 3 parts:cells, fibers, ground substances. Functions:binds organs together, support, physical protection, immune protection, movement, storage, heat production, transport |
| Tendons | fibrous connective tissue attachs muscle to bone |
| Ligaments | a connective tissue thats attaches bone to bone |
| Collagen fibers | fiber found in fibrous connective tissue, it is 25% of the body's protein, tough ,flexible and thicker so it resists stretch. Found in tendons, ligaments, dermis, bones, cartilage |
| Elastic fibers | type of protein fiber found in fibrous connective tissue, it contains elastin(protein) and can stretch and recoil |
| Cartilage | a type of connnective tissue that chondoblasts(secrete rubber matrix for more flexibility) and collagen or elastic fibers |
| Bone | type of connective tissue(osseous tissue), contains spongy bone or compact(dense) bone which allows for mineral storage |
| Adipose tissue | type of connective tissue that is just fat cells, its good for storage, physical protection and heat production. |
| Ground substance | a part of the connective tissue, that is gelatinous appears, like empty spaces on slides. Helps absorbs compression,insulates and protects delicate cells. Helps regulate water/electrolytes. |
| Neurons | a component of nervous tissue, they detect, rspond quickly to signals and send info |
| Glial cells | a component of nervous tissue, protect and assist neuron, supporting cells, abudant and small |
| Soma | is the cell body of a neuron gives it the stellate star shape |
| Dendrites | they are the tree branch parts of a nueron and get the signal |
| Axon | the long part of a neuron carry outgoing signal |
| Skeletal muscle | a type of muscular tissue, striated, voluntary, usually attached to bones, multiple nuclei, |
| Smooth muscle | a type of muscular tissue, no striations, involuntary, fusiform cells, one nucleus ex: bladder, stomach, esophagus, uterus, iris |
| Cardiac muscle | a type of muscular tissue, striated, myocytes(shorter, only 1 nucleus, joined end to end by intercalated discs(keep cells from being pulled apart with contractions), electrical junctions(allow simultaneous stimulation and contraction), involuntary |
| Striated | alternating light and dark bands which are just overlapping porteins in the cell |
| Voluntary | means you have to tell it to do something/have control over it, ex: skeletal tissue |
| Involuntary | your body does it'sfunction automatically without having to tell it too, ex: smooth and cardiac muscle tissue |
| Atrophy | decrease in tissue size due to loss of cell size or cell# generally due to aging, disuse (broken bone that was immobilized, coma, astronauts) |
| Necrosis | premature death of tissue, due to trauma, toxins, infection or bedsores. because continous pressure on a spot limits blood flow |
| Gangrene | more intense necrosiss due to insuficient/no blood supply (no O2 or nutrients), due to lack of treatment to inital issue, common with frostbite& untreated diabetes, it happens overtime not quickly |
| Apoptosis | programmed cell death-normal death of cells because completed their function |
| Regeneration | type of tissue repair, replacement of damaged cells with same cell type-restores normal function ex:liver and skin |
| Fibrosis | type of tissue repair, replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue, helps to hold an organ together, does not restore function(ex when tanning scar doesn't tan, also doesn't grow hair or sweat) |
| Epidermis | keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, lots of dead cells at surface packed with keratin( tough proteins), few nerve endings and rely on connective tissue below for blood supply. 5 layers: Stratum: basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum,, corneum |
| Dermis | made of loose connective tissue, deeper/thicker layer of skin. it is made of collagen fiber, reticular fibers, elastic fibers(elastin=stretch and recoil), contains blood v., glands, hair follices, nail roots, nerves, two layers papillary and reticular |
| Hypodermis | under dermis made of adipose tissue also called subcutaneous fat, bind skin to underlying tissue, insulation, energy reserves, cushioninig for organs, energy storage |
| Stratum basale | single layer of cuboidal/coloumnar cells, contains keratinocytes and melatinocytes, and tactile cells, deepest layer of epidermis |
| Stratum spinosum | many layers of keratinocytes->deeper cells=mitosis, cells closer to surface=thinner and less division, contains dendritic cells |
| Stratum granulosum | 2-5 layers of thin keratinocytes(living), lipid filled vesicles are released thorugh exocytosis and glycolipids is released which creates waterproof layer-prevents water loss and blocks access to nutrients and 02 for cells/layers above. |
| Stratum lucidum | thin translucent layer (only in thicker epidermis) cells dead, no nucleus or organelles |
| Stratum corneum | up to thirty layers of dead, dry, scaly keratinocytes, flakes off as dander, closest layer of epidermis to the surface. |
| Keratinocytes | produce keratin and undergo rapid mitosis found in stratum basale |
| Melanocytes | make melatin(skin pigment) which builds up on the surface side of a cells nucleus to protect dna from UV radiation found in stratum basale |
| Tactile (Merkel) cells | touch receptors found in stratum basale |
| Sebaceous gland | =oil glands, sebum=oil on skin(made from broken down cells), ususally open into hair follcle, some release onto skin directly. Functions:keep skin from drying out/cracking, it is also antibiotic |
| Apocrine sweat gland | in groin, axillary regions, beard areas sweat has more fatty acids than sweat from eccrine glands"thicker sweat", don't develop until puberty, they are also scent glands-release pheromones |
| Eccrine sweat gland | most numerous, secretions produced by exocytosis, 99% water, made from blood plasma, contains ions salts, wastes ph:4-6, all around body in high conc. heps regulate temps, been there since birth |
| Ceruminous gland | in external ear canal, secrete sebum-mixes with dead epidermal cells=ear wax(cerumen, which helps with ear drum flexibility, waterproof, antiobiotic effects |
| Mammary gland | develop within the breast only during pregnancy and time mother breastfeeds for, they are modified apocrine sweat glands. |
| Dendritic cells | show foreign cells to immune system and decide if respond found in Stratum spinosum |
| Dermal papillae | extensions of the dermis go into the epidermis, extend even further in sensitive skin makes nerve endings closer to surface |
| Papillary layer | a layer of the dermis 20% of top thickness, it is loose areolar tissue near papillae-loose=allowws white blood cells to move more easily-react quicker if damage to epidermis |
| Reticular layer | bottom 80% of dermis, dense connective tissue, collagen forms thicker bundles, stretch marks are caused because of torn collagen fiber in this layer |
| Subcutaneous fat | =hypodermis, it binds skin to underlying tissue, insulation, energy reserves, cushioning for organs, energy storage. |
| Hemoglobin | a skin pigment red blood vessels combined with white collagen fibers in dermis=pink pigmentation, more red in areas with blood cells closer to surface. |
| Melanin | a skin pigment, that has variety of hues(brown, black, red, yellow) varies in body places, more and spread out=darker skin, less and clumped=lighter skin |
| Carotene | a yellow/orange skin pigment that is not made by body but absorbed from food in digestion(egg yolk and yellow orange vegatables like carrots) |
| Cyanosis | skin changes blood, it affects hemoglobin when deoxygnated |
| Erythema | abnormal redness, affects hemoglobin, result of injury or irritation causing dilatation of the blood capillaries. |
| Jaundice | skin turns yellow, when there is excess amounts of bilirubin in blood goes to subcutaneous fat |
| Bronzing | the act of exposing the skin to ultraviolet radiation for the purpose of darkening skin color, affecting melanin? |
| Albinism | when you have very little pigmentation/melanin, so your skin appears white, it is inherited disease and caused by decrease in production of melanin |
| Epidermal ridges | your stratum basale buckles on itself and forms these ridges which make fingerprint |
| Vitamin D | synthesis of this vitamin helps maintain blood calcium levels, begins in epidermal keratinocytes, triggered by uv radiation |
| Keratin | Keratin is a protein that body produces naturally, and hard keratin helps keep your hair and nails healthy and strong, and there is soft keratini in skin |
| Follicle | tube that hair grows from, found in all skin except palms, fingers, lipids, bottom of feet and nipples |
| Hair bulb | only area with living cells originates in the dermis |
| Hair shaft | portion of hair above the skins surface |
| layers of cross sections | medulla(middle circle), cortex(layer outside medulla), cuticle(outermost layer single layer of shingle like keratin) |
| texture based on cross section of hair | straight hair=round, wavy hair=oval, curly hair=flat |
| hair contains | bulb, root, shaft |
| Anagen phase | 6-8 years, steam cells divide and form the epithelial root sheath and hair matrix. sheath cells then die and are pushed upward |
| Catagen phase | 2-3 weeks, epithelial root sheath cells undergo apoptosis. follicle shrinks. hair may fall out (average hair loss=50-100 scalp hairs per day) |
| Telogen phase | telogen stage( 1-3 months), resting stage |
| Alopecia | follicles shrink and produce wispy hairs, fewer cells in anlagen occurs in males and females. Causes: aging, poor diet, prolonged high fevers, chemo and radiation, increased stress/emotional trauma |
| Hirsutism | excessive hairiness in areas with typically less hair more common in females and children, tends to run in families, causes: ovarian tumors and hyyper secretion of testerone. |
| Basal cell carcinoma | arises from keratinocytes in the stratum basal, eventually into dermis, most common but least dangerous-rarely metastasizes to other organs |
| Squamous cell carcinoma | arises from keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum, good chance of survival if caught early and treated but can metastasize and potentially lethal |
| Malignant melanoma | most deadly skin cancer but only 5% of cases, arises from melanocytes of an existing mole, metastisizes quickly, often fatal without imediate treatment. |
| Osseous tissue | Is a connective tissue that forms the bone that contains four different cell types , a matrix, and fibers |
| Calcification | when the matrix is hardened by calcium phosphate and other minerals(makes bones hard) |
| Long bones | bone that is longer than they are wide, spongy bones on ends, all limb bones except wrist, ankle, kneecap |
| Short bones | bone that is cube shaped, spongy center with compact bone around. Ex: wrist, ankle, patella |
| Flat bones | bone that is thin, flat curved, 2 layers of compact with a layer of spongy in-between. Ex: skulls, ribs, sternum, scapula |
| Irregular bones | bone shaped unlike others. Ex: vertebrae, and some skull bones |
| Compact bone | is a dense bone found in the diaphysis, it its repeat pattern is arranged in concentric layers of solid bone tissue, it can be seen as the layer just underneath the periosteum |
| Medullary cavity | of the diaphysis serves to lighten bone weight and provide space for marrow |
| Spongy bone | this bone is found mainly wihtin the epiphysis and has a textured appearance wehre it contains red marrow |
| Diaphysis | the shaft of the long bone is has compact bone with a central cavity |
| Epiphysis | at the ends of the bone, it has a thin layer of compact bone while internally the bone is spongy, this is capped with articular cartilage |
| Articular cartilage | found on the ends of long bones, it is smooth, slippery, and bloodless |
| Epiphyseal plate | line of cartilage that shows bone is still growing |
| Osteogenic cells | stem cells, undergo frequent mitosis some become osteoblasts. In endosteum inner layer of periosteum, central canals |
| Osteoblasts | they are the bone builders, they make the organic matter(collagen) of the bone matrix. They do not divides, form from osteogenic cells, line same region as osteogenic cells and resemble simple cuboidals cells, they increase in # bcz of stress |
| Osteocytes | are osteoblasts trapped in the matrix, reside in cavities called lacunae. They detect strain and signal osteoblasts to build more bone strength |
| Lacunae | tiny cavities in the bone matrix with osteocytes inside |
| Canaliculi | tiny canals that radiate outward from the central canals to all lacunae |
| Osteoclasts | bone dissolving cells, formed from many cells merged together found on outside of bone, stimulated by calcitriol |
| Matrix | variation from bone to bone based on function and location, made of collagen and protein(organic materials that contribute to flexibility) and minerals and ions(contribute to rigidity and strength) |
| Osteogenesis imperfecta | brittle bone disease, lack of organic part of bone(proteins and collagen) so bones snap easily, cause: 80-90% autosomal dominant and collagen gene mutations |
| Red bone marrow | present in children, it produces blood cells, as we age we loose this as it converts to yellow bone marrow, in adults it can be found in the vertebrae, ribs, sternum, pelvis, proximal ends of humerus and femur |
| Yellow bone marrow | replaces the red bone marrow in adults, it contains many adipocytes(fat) which stores sustenance, and it doesn't produce blood |
| Gelatinous bone marrow | in old age bone marrow will turn to this due to atrophy |
| Intramembranous ossification | type of bone formation that produces bones with spongy between two layers of compact bone, produces flat bones of skull and collarbone |
| Endochondral ossification | type of bone formation that produces, vertebrae, pelvis and limb bones. It does this by when embryonic connective tissue first becomes a cartilage(rough draft) and then is reorganized and calcified to form bone |
| Calcitriol | form of vitamin D, produced by skin, liver, kidneys, raises BLOOD calcium levels,, stimulates osteoclasts(bone dissolving cells) |
| Calcitonin | lowers blood calcium levels so more on bone, inhibits osteoclasts, stimulates osteoblasts, produced by thyroid glands |
| Osteoporosis | =porous bone, loss of spongy bone mass brittle bones likely to fracture, both inorganic and organic matrix materials lost, higher chance in girls bc Two factors age(lose bone mass at 35) and hormones (estrogen stimulate osteoblasts which decrease as age) |
| Rickets | less calcium salts in bones so it creates soft/bendy curved bones. It can be caused by lack of vitamin D or calcium in diet of a child, severe lack of sun exposure because less vitamin D= less calcium |
| Synovial joint | bones seperated by space(joint cavity), lubricated by synovial fluid ex: shoulder, elbow, carpal joints, hip, knee, tarsal joints, interphalangeal joints. |
| Synovial membrane | is a thin barrier that lines the inside of some of your joints. You might also see it referred to as your synovium. They encase your joints in a layer of synovial fluid. The fluid protects your joints and helps them move smoothly. |
| Joint capsule | thses separate joints and contain synovial fluid, may also be called joint cavity |
| Sutures | fibrous joint, synarthrosis, only found in skull. Three types serrate, lap, plane |
| Fibrous joints | bones held together by collagenous fibers extending from the matrix of one bone into the matrix of another, no joint cavity. Ex: skull sutures, teeth in sockets, radioulnar joints, tibiofibular joints |
| Cartilaginous joints | bones held together by cartilage ex: epiphyseal plates of long bones, intervertebral discs |
| Diarthrosis | freely moveable synovial joints, ex: elbow, shoulder, hip, knee, fingers and toes |
| Amphiarthrosis | slightly moveable joints ex: ribs+2, intervertebral discs, radiounlar |
| Synarthrosis | no movement joints ex: skull, tooth in socket, 1st rib |
| Gomphosis | fibrous joints, synarthrosis, holds tooth in place. |
| Syndesmoses | joints joined by ligaments only, fibrous joints, amphiathrosis, ex: radius and ulna tibia and fibula |
| Synchondroses | cartilaginous joints, hyaline cartilage, synarthrosis and amphiarthrosis |
| Symphyses | cartilaginous joints, joint by fibrocartilage, ampharthroses |
| Bony joint (synostosis) | previously seperate bones become fused by bony tissue, fibrous joints, synarthroses, ex:: frontal and mandible used to be 2 bones each |
| Synovial fluid | its a thicker fluid in joint cavities, it contains albumin(protein) and hyaluronic acid(gives sticky structure) |
| Ball-and-socket joints | type of synvoial joint, that is diathesis, multi-axial(3 planes of direction). One bone has smooth roundeed surface that fits into cup(socket) of the other. Ex: shoulder and hip |
| Hinge joints | type of synovial joints, that is diarthrosis, monoaxial (only one plane of movement) . One bone surface hs a depression that the other fits into ex: knee and elbow and interphalangeal |
| Saddle joint | type of synovial joint that is diarthrosis, biaxial (two planes of movement) ends of both bones=shaped like saddles together), ex: base of thumb |
| Pivot joints | type of synovial joint that is diarthrosis, monoaxial. One bone fits into the ring like structure of the other, allows one to rotate around ex: radioulnar joint, 1&2 cervical vertebrae |
| Gliding (plane) joints | type of synovial joint that is amphiarthrosis, monoaxial. Edges of bone are curved and flat and they fit together loosely, ex: carpals, tarsals, sternoclavicular |
| Ellipsoid joints | type of synovial joint that is diarthrosis, biaxial,. End of one bone=oval which fits into depression of the other. Ex: radiocarpal, metacarphalangeal |
| Flexion | movement that decreases the angle of a joint ex:bending elbow/knee |
| Extension | movement that straightens a joint and returns body part to normal position ex:straightening elbow or knee |
| Hyperextension | extension of a joint beyond 180 degrees ex: hyperextending wrist while lifting it up when arm is flat |
| Abduction | movement of a body part away from the midsagittal line ex:raising arm to one side of body |
| Adduction | movement toward the midsagittal line of the middle digit ex:returning body to anatomical position |
| Elevation | movement that raises bone vertically ex: manidble elevated when biting off piece of food |
| Depression | movement that lowers bone vertically ex: lowerinig mandible to poen mouth |
| Protraction | movement of a bone anteriorly(forward) ex:thrusting pelvis |
| Retraction | movement posteriorly(backward) ex:clavicles in military position |
| Circumduction | movement in which one end of an appendage remains stationary while other end makes circular motion |
| Rotation | movement in which bone turns on its longitudinal axis ex:twisting at waist=rotation of trunk |
| Supination | rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces foward or upward |
| Pronation | rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces towards the rear or downward |
| Opposition | movement of the thumb to approach or touch the fingertips |
| Reposition | movement of the thumb back to anatomical position parallel to the index finger |
| Dorsiflexion | movement in which the toes are raised ex:taking footsteps as foot comes forwards |
| Plantar flexion | extension of the foot so that the toes point downward ex:tip toe |
| Inversion | movement where the soles are turned medially(center) |
| Eversion | turning of the soles to face laterally (away) |
| Arthritis | pain and inflammation of a joint caused by cartilage break down, bone rubs against bone. Two other types include osteoarthritis(wear and tear), and rheumatoid arthritis (autoimmune attacks synvoial membrane) |
| Bipedal | humans have longer legs shorter arms, 5 lumbar verts(allowing for more flexibility) chimps have 4, we have large pelvic bone, larger heel bone and angled thigh bone for more support, foramen magnum(hole in skull) far back in chimps so eyes up when walk |
| Endomysium | innermost connective tissue around each muscle fiber |
| Epimysium | outermost connective tissue surounds groups of fascicles |
| Perimysium | connective tissue surrounding each fasicle |
| Fascicle | group of fibers |
| Myofibers | the cell of a skeletel muscle has a very organized internal structure |
| Sarcolemma | the cell membrane of a muscle cell |
| Sarcoplasm | the cytoplasm of a muscxle cells that is filled with protein bundles called myofibrils |
| Myofibrils | made up of a bundle of parallel proteins called myofilaments |
| Myofilament | found in myofibrils there are three types thick, thin, elastic filaments |
| Sarcoplasmic reticulum | stores the Ca+2 needed for contractions in a muscle cell |
| Thick filaments | 15 nm in diameter made of several hundred molecules of the protein myosin |
| Thin filaments | 7nm in diameter composed of actin molecules |
| Myosin | the protein found in thick filaments that pulls on actin binding sites in contractions |
| Actin | the protein found in thin filaments that has an active sites where myosin molecules pull on, but it is usally covered by a tropomyosin molecule |
| Troponin | troponin holds tropomyosinn down and when calcium binds to it and it moves tropomyosin out of the way it exposes actins bindinig sites |
| Tropomyosin | tropomysosin blocks actins binding sites and its held down by troponin |
| Z disc | straightlines in sarcomeres where thin filaments attach too, made of connectin proteins, |
| A bands | thick filaments lying side by side they are dark |
| I bands | thin filaments alone, they are light bands |
| Sarcomere | conctractile unit of a muscle fiber |
| Motor unit | one nerve fiber and all the muscle fibers it innervates |
| Neuromuscular junction | The neuromuscular junction—where nerves and muscle fibers meet—is an essential synapse for muscle contraction and movement |
| Acetylcholine | nerves release this neurotransmitter that changes voltage of cell and causes sarcolemma gates to open for ions to exchanges places |
| Contraction | Neuron releases acetylcholine to stimulate muscle(opens ion channels on cell mem. =change voltage). Sr releases ca+2 which binds to troponin. Tropmyosin moves and exposes actin binding sites, myosin binds to actin and pulls w help of ATP |
| Relaxation | Acetylcholine stops arriving, Ca+2 pumped by active transport back into the sr (needs ATP to do so), so tropomysoin moves back into position covering binding sites |
| Isotonic contraction | change in muscle length but no change in tension, two types concentric and eccentric |
| Isometric contraction | tension absorbed by series-elastic components, muscle does not move, same length changing tension |
| Concentric contraction | type of isotonic contratction where muscle shortens as it maintains tension |
| Eccentric contraction | type of isotonic contratction where muscle lengthens as it maintains tension |
| Fatigue | glycogen used up, ATP synthesis decreases. ATP slows downn the Na+ and K+ pump needed for Ca+2 movement. Lactic acid production lowers pH of the sarcoplasm inhibits enzymes |
| Oxygen debt | heavy breathing after excercise is a sign of oxygen deficiency, a marathon runner is exhausted after race bcz depleted all oxygen and glucose |
| Slow-twitch fibers | Also red or type 1 fibers, has lots of mitochondria, myoglobin and blood capillaries, does not fatigue easily Ex: Soleus muscle, postural muscle of back |
| Fast-twitch fibers | Also called white or type 2 fibers well adapated for fast response but not for fatigue resistance, contains enzymes for phosphagen system and anaerobic fermentation, fatigue more easily. SR releases/reasborbs Ca+2 fast Ex: gastrocenmius muscle and biceps |
| Pacemaker | sets off wave of electrical excitation- travel through heart muscle and cause contractions |
| Intercalated discs | myocytes in the cardiac muscle are linked by intercalated discs |
| tissue | a group of cells and cell products that came from the same region of embryo and work together, four types epithelium, connective, nervous, muscular |
| nervous tissue | found in brain and spinal cord and peripheral nerves made of neurons and gilial cells |
| muscular tissue | specialized to respond to stimuli by contracting, three types:skeletal, cardiac, and smooth |
| skin cancer | uncontrolled cell growth, typically caused by increased uv radiation exposure, common in neck hands, face |
| calluses | result from mechanical stress and increase keratinocytes multiplication, injury mitosis goes faster, aging goes slower |
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