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Respiratory System
Respiratory System A&P II chapter 23
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Mitochondria Respire to make ATP | Cellular Respiration ,Occurs in mitochondria,Produces ATP – Consumes oxygen, generates carbon dioxide waste Oxygen – Diffuses across exchange surfaces of lungs from air – Carried to cells by the cardiovascular system Also returns CO2 to the lungs |
| Five Functions of the Respiratory System | 1. Provides extensive gas exchange surface area between air and circulating blood 2. Moves air to and from exchange surfaces of lungs 3. Protects respiratory surfaces from outside environment 4. Produces sounds 5. Participates in olfactory sense |
| • Upper respiratory system | Above the larynx – Nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx (throat) Lower respiratory system |
| Conducting zone | Filter, warm, and moisten air from outside – Nose to terminal bronchioles (inside lungs) • Respiratory zone |
| Alveoli | Air-filled pockets within the lungs • Where all gas exchange takes place |
| The Respiratory Tract & Epithelium | Respiratory tract – Passageways carrying air to and from the gas exchange surfaces For gases to exchange efficiently: Alveolar walls must be very thin Surface area must be very great Creates a fast exchange About the surface area of a tennis court |
| The Respiratory Defense System | A series of filters that removes particles and pathogens 1. Mucous cells and mucous glands 2. Cilia 3. Hairs and mucus in nasal cavity removes large particles 4. Alveolar macrophages (dust cells) engulf small particles that reach lungs |
| Mucous cells and mucous glands | Produce mucus that bathes exposed surfaces |
| Cilia | Sweep debris trapped in mucus toward the pharynx (mucociliary escalator |
| Alveolar Epithelium | Very delicate, simple squamous epithelium • Contains scattered and specialized cells • Lines gas exchange surfaces of alveoli • If mucus misses debris, alveolar dust cells (macrophages) will catch it! |
| Path of Air through Respiratory System | External nares Nasal cavity Internal nares (choanae) Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Epiglottis Glottis Trachea Bronchi (bronchus) L + R primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi • Bronchioles • Alveolar ducts Alveolar sacs |
| Entrance Structures | • Nasal cavity and turbinates • Internal nares (choanae) • Nasal Mucosa – Warms and humidifies inhaled air for arrival at lower respiratory organs – Breathing through mouth bypasses this important step! |
| Pharynx | • Back of nasal cavity and throat • Shared by digestive and respiratory systems • Extends from internal nares to entrances of larynx and esophagus (the air vs. food decision!) •Divided into three parts: 1. Nasopharynx 2. Oropharynx 3. Laryngopharynx |
| Pharynx Divisions | 1. Nasopharynx 2. Oropharynx 3. Laryngopharynx |
| Nasopharynx Functions | 1. Respiration 2. Fighting Infections 3. Drainage System – Middle ear communicates with the nasopharynx through the auditory (Eustachian) tube which drains all middle ear secretions |
| Air through Lower Respiratory System | Larynx Glottis Epiglottis Thyroid cartilage Cricoid cartilage Vocal cords Vestibular ligaments Vocal ligaments |
| Sound in the Lower Respiratory System | Takes place through the larynx (voice box) where air is forced back from lungs to oral and nasal cavities,shaped by vocal cords and oral cavity structures to form sounds/words glottis |
| Air through Lower Respiratory System | Trachea – ‘windpipe’ about 4.5” long and 1” diameter Tracheal cartilage Bolus Bronchi extend down from trachea into lungs and become progressively smaller as bronchioles |
| Larynx | A cartilaginous tube that surrounds the glottis and is protected by the epiglottis during swallowing of food Protected by vestibular and vocal folds Three cartilages – Epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, and cricoid cartilage |
| Cartilages of the Larynx | Three large, unpaired cartilages form the larynx 1. Epiglottis 2. Thyroid cartilage 3. Cricoid cartilage |
| Epiglottis | Composed of elastic cartilage • During swallowing, larynx elevates and epiglottis folds over to cover the entrance of the glottis • Prevents entry of food and liquids into glottis (respiratory tract) |
| Thyroid Cartilage | • Largest of the three cartilages • U-shaped with laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) anteriorly • Surrounds and protects the larynx (voice box) on front and both sides • Hyaline cartilage |
| Cricoid Cartilage | • Hyaline cartilage at C6 – articulates with arytenoids that help make sound through vocal folds • Signet-ring shaped with large face of ‘ring’ posterior • Forms posterior portion of larynx |
| Sound and Speech | Vestibular Ligaments – Vestibular folds (false vocal cords) which protect delicate vocal folds (true vocal cords) • Sound Production – Air passing through glottis – Vibrates vocal folds – Produces sound waves |
| Cough Reflex | Clears airway When food or liquid touches the vestibular folds or glottis, it triggers the cough reflex Glottis is kept closed while abdominal and thoracic contract – Opens suddenly to allow blast of air to remove material blocking entrance to glottis |
| Trachea $$“Windpipe” for safe conduction of air from just below larynx down to bronchi • Extends from the cricoid cartilage to carina (the fork into right and left pulmonary bronchi) • Submucosa – Beneath mucosa of trachea – Contains mucous glands | Windpipe” for safe conduction of air from just below larynx down to bronchi • Extends from the cricoid cartilage to carina (the fork into right and left pulmonary bronchi) • Submucosa – Beneath mucosa of trachea – Contains mucous glands |
| Tracheal Cartilages | • 15–20 tracheal cartilages • Keep airway open at all times • C-shaped to allow food to pass down esophagus |
| Bronchial Tree | • Formed by the primary bronchi and their branches • Extrapulmonary Bronchi – The left and right bronchi branches outside the lungs • Intrapulmonary Bronchi – Branches within the lungs |
| The Bronchial Tree | 1. Main Bronchi (Primary) 2. Lobar Bronchi (Secondary) 3. Segmental Bronchi (Tertiary) 4. Bronchopulmonary segment 5. Bronchioles: 1. Terminal 2. Respiratory |
| Main Bronchi | Carina Right Main Bronchus Left Main Bronchus |
| Bronchi | Secondary • Each supplies a lobe of the lungs – Right side has 3 lobes so 3 lobar bronchi – Left side has 2 lobes so 2 lobar bronchi – Have cartilage plates instead of C-rings |
| Lobar Segmental Bronchi | • Tertiary • Branching pattern differs in each lung – Walls contain fewer and fewer cartilage plates – Amount of smooth muscle increases instead • Each segmental branch ends in singular bronchopulmonary segments before turning into bronchioles |
| Bronchioles | 2 Types Have no cartilage, smooth muscle resp. aterioles Changes in their diameter controls air flow (resistance) 1. Terminal bronchioles 2. Respiratory bronchioles |
| Controlling the Bronchi | Bronchoconstriction Bronchodilation |
| Gas Exchange Structures | 1. Respiratory bronchioles 2. Alveoli 3. Blood-Air Barrier (gas exchange through 3 layers) |
| Respiratory Bronchioles | Formed by each terminal bronchiole branches Thinnest, most delicate of the bronchial tree branches Deliver O2 to the gas exchange surfaces of the lungs Air filtered and humidified before arriving here – since no mucous glands here, paths get in lungs |
| Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli | Alveolar ducts – Connection between respiratory bronchiole and alveolar sac Alveolar sac – Two or more alveoli that share a common opening Alveolus – Cup-shaped outpouching of simple squamous epithelium – Has elastic membrane for recoil after every |
| Alveolar Epithelium | • Type I pneumocytes – Are the simple squamous cells forming the alveolar epithelium • Alveolar macrophages (dust cells) – Free macs patrolling epithelial surface for pathogens • Type II pneumocytes (septal cells) – Surfactant production – Oily secretion |
| Blood-Air Barrier | • Respiratory membrane where gas exchange occurs in the alveoli Three Layers 1. Alveolar cell layer 2. Fused basement membrane 3. Capillary endothelial layer |
| Diffusion at Blood-Air Barrier | FAST • Gas exchange (diffusion) is quick because short distance through all three layers Oxygen and carbon dioxide are small and able to diffuse through lipid bilayer of cells easily Surface area of Blood-Air Barrier is very large! |
| Lung Anatomy | Contain both bronchial tree and respiratory (gas) portion of LRS Surrounded by left and right pleural cavities Each lung shaped like a blunt cone Apex at most superior just above clavicle and first rib Base rests on diaphragm |
| Lung Anatomy: Lobes and Fissures | Lobes –Each lung has lobes separated by deep fissures Right lung has 3 lobes separated by 2 fissures – Superior, Middle, and Inferior lobes – Horizontal fissure – Oblique fissure Left lung has 2 lobes separated by 1 fissure ob Superior and Inferior |
| Lung Anatomy: Hilum and Root | Hilum – Where pulmonary nerves, blood vessels, lymphatics enter lung – Anchored in meshwork of connective tissue Root of the lung – Complex of connective tissues, nerves, and vessels in hilum – Anchored to the mediastinum |
| Cardiac Notch | •Left lung is longer than right lung but has to make space for heart (right lung has to accommodate liver underneath) Heart is left of midline Impression of heart on left lung at medial margin |
| Pleural Cavities and Pleural Membranes | 1. Parietal pleura lining pleural (thoracic) cavity, covering diaphragm and mediastinum 2. Visceral pleura covering the lungs themselves • Pleural fluid – Lubricates space between two layers – Reduces friction between during breathing |
| Pulmonary Embolism + CHF | BP in lungs is much lower (30 mm Hg) than systemic circuit Easily blocked by clots (blood, fat, air bubbles) that cannot be wedged free due to low pressure Usually small clots dissolve Larger emboli block pulm artery =pulmonary embolism |
| Nasopharynx – Superior portion of pharynx and has cilia to catch pathogens and dust – Contains pharyngeal tonsils and openings to left and right auditory tubes (Eustachian tubes | Superior portion of pharynx and has cilia to catch pathogens and dust – Contains pharyngeal tonsils and openings to left and right auditory tubes (Eustachian tubes) |
| Oropharynx | Middle portion of pharynx behind the tongue – Back of the oral cavity |
| Laryngopharynx | – Lower portion of throat above the larynx – Extends from hyoid bone and epiglottis to the division of larynx (air) and esophagus (food) |
| Nasopharynx Respiration function | – Has ciliated respiratory epithelium to catch dust and pathogens |
| Nasopharynx fighting infection function | Has lymphatic tissues to fight infection |
| Nasopharynx Drainage system | – Middle ear communicates with the nasopharynx through the auditory (Eustachian) tube which drains all middle ear secretions |
| Larynx | below laryngopharynx and extends from C4-C7 |
| Glottis | opening of airway through larynx, voice box of larynx |
| Epiglottis | – elastic cartilage gatekeeper that forms flap over glottis to block trachea when swallowing food |
| Thyroid cartilage | – hyaline cartilage “Adam’s apple” |
| Cricoid cartilage | hyaline cartilage ring shaped base of larynx |
| Vocal cords | - two pairs of ligaments stretched across glottis |
| Vestibular ligaments | – false vocal cords that prevent food from entering glottis |
| Vocal ligaments | – true vocal cords that vibrate sounds to make speech |
| Tracheal cartilages | C-shaped rings that face posteriorly to allow the esophagus to expand when swallowing food |
| Carina – Separates the two main bronchi at the end of the trachea | – Separates the two main bronchi at the end of the trachea |
| Right Main Bronchus | – Primary – Is larger in diameter than the left and has three branches – Natural path of aspirated objects due to almost vertical angle |
| Left Main Bronchus | – Primary – Longer and slightly narrower than right; more acute angle as it is over the heart at cardiac notch – Has two branches |
| Terminal bronchioles (first) | (first) – One tertiary bronchus forms about 6500 terminal bronchiole |
| Respiratory bronchioles | (last) – Lead into alveolar ducts |
| Bronchoconstriction | – Constricts bronchi by smooth mm creating tension folds in mucosa Asthma Histamine release (allergic reactions when mast cells and basophils respond |
| Asthma | – Excessive stimulation and bronchoconstriction – Creates severe resistance to airflow in terminal bronchioles |
| Bronchodilation | – Dilation of bronchial airways – Caused by sympathetic ANS activation – Reduces resistance |
| Alveolus | Cup-shaped outpouching of simple squamous epithelium – Has elastic membrane for recoil after every breath Connected directly to the gas exchange membrane (O2 for CO2) at cap side of lungs |
| Lung Surfactant made by Type II Pneumocytes | Reduces surface tension in thin layer of water coating insides of alveolar sacs Attraction of H+ bonds/water to itself creates surface tension Prevents collapse of alveolar sacs |
| Lack of surfactant | Type II pneumocytes not producing enough surfactant causes alveolito collapse after each exhalation RDS (respiratory distress syndrome) results, ARDS, IRDS |
| Alveolar cell layer | Squamous epithelial cells lining the alveolus |
| Fused basement membrane | Between the alveolar and endothelial cells |
| Capillary endothelial layer | Endothelial cells lining an adjacent capillary |
| Eupnea | Quiet breathing Normal breathing Deep breathing (diaphragmatic breathing) Shallow breathing (costal breathing) |
| Hyperpnea | Forced breathing Active inspiration and expiration, assisted by accessory muscles |
| Elastic Rebound | When inhalation muscles relax Elastic components of muscles and lungs recoil Returns lungs and alveoli to original position |
| Pressure Gradients Inside the Thoracic Cavity | Outside the body is only atmospheric pressure, but inside the thoracic cavity and lungs there are several pressure gradients -Intrapulmonary (interalveolar) pressure -Intrapleural pressure |
| Intrapulmonary (Intra-alveolar) Pressure | pressure inside the respiratory tract at the alveoli About −1 mm Hg on inhalation or +1 mm Hg on exhalation Inhalation- 759 mmHg Exhalation 761 mm Hg |
| Intrapleural Pressure | Hydrogen bonds create a SUCTION effect between the parietal and visceral pleural membranes avg −4 mm Hg remains below due to relationship between lungs and thoracic cavity wall Ribs pull lungs up & diaphragm pulls lungs down, due to neg pressure |
| Pneumothorax | the ‘tilt’ that breaks contact between visceral and parietal pleurae (ruins the intrapleural pressure) |
| Atelectasis | the collapsed lung result of pneumothorax |
| Composition of Air in the Alveoli | Warmed, filtered, humidified Incoming air mixes w/ leftover air from last respiratory cycle last 150 mL of inhaled air never gets past the conducting passageways but remains in anatomic dead space of lungs |
| Alveolar Ventilation Rate | most important determines rate of actual O2 delivery to alveoli actual amount of usable oxygen after it encounters the anatomic dead air (150 mL) that never made it down to the alveoli and stayed trapped in the conducting zone less than Resp Min Vol. |
| Panic Attack/Anxiety | lowers actual RMV lower tidal volume = less air |
| Rate Diffusion Depends on Gas Laws | Diffusion of gases occurs in response to concentration gradients Rate of diffusion depends on physical principles Concentration gradient Temperature Gas Laws (ex: Boyle’s Law determines direction of air movement into or out of the lungs) |
| Gas laws for gas behavior | Boyle’s law of Inverse Volume and Pressure Daltons law of Partial Pressures Henry’s Law of Diffusion of Gases (Pressurizing gas into a solution) |
| Henry’s Law of Diffusion of Gases | More pressure outside the gas forces it into a solution Less pressure allows it to escape depend on temperature & solubility of the gas Eventually, it will reach equilibrium pressure up, more gas into solution pressure down, gas leave the solution |
| Five Reasons Gas Exchange is EFFICIENT | Substantial differences in partial pressure across the respiratory membrane Distances involved in gas exchange are short O2 and CO2 are lipid soluble Total surface area is large Blood flow and airflow are coordinated |
| Gas Exchange | Gases move down their concentration gradients O2 to enter blood CO2 to leave blood |
| Oxygen Transport as Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) | O2 binds to iron ions in hemoglobin (Hb) molecules As a reversible reaction New molecule is called oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) Each RBC has about 280 million Hb molecules Each binds four oxygen molecules |
| Hemoglobin Saturation | The percentage of heme units in a hemoglobin molecule that contain bound oxygen Factors affecting saturation -Amount of oxygen PO2 in blood -Blood pH -Temperature of blood |
| Hemoglobin Saturation Curve | If oxygen levels are high, then Hb will bind oxygen If levels are low, then Hb will release oxygen Hb changes shape with each binding of oxygen, making each one easier and easier to bind |
| Hemoglobin Prefers Carbon Monoxide (CO) | CO from burning fossil fuels like coal and kerosene Hb will always choose carbon monoxide over oxygen Binds more strongly to hemoglobin (has higher affinity for) Takes the place of O2 Can result in carbon monoxide poisoning |
| Hemoglobin Releases O2 in Low pH | Hb usually travels at ¾ full tank of oxygen Active tissues (exercise) creates acid, lowering pH of interstitial fluid Hb changes shape in low pH, releasing its oxygen reserve Due to Bohr Effect of carbonic acid formation |
| Hemoglobin and Temperature | Temperature increase = hemoglobin releases more oxygen (exercise or fight/flight) Temperature decrease = hemoglobin holds oxygen more tightly (resting) Exercise in muscles |
| Neural Control of Breathing | Skeletal muscles control breathing Pontine respiratory gp. and Medullary respiratory gp. Respiratory centers for unconscious breathing in medulla and pons |
| Pre-Botzinger complex | (central pattern generator) The newly discovered pacemaker of respiration replaces dorsal respiratory center as control of inhalation Generates eupnea (normal breathing) |
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treylowrey1
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