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A & P II
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Receptor | Structure specialized to detect a stimulus. |
| Sense organ | Structure that combines nervous tissue with other tissues that enhance its response to a certain type of stimulus |
| Transduction | Conversion of one form of energy to another- light, sound, heat, touch, vibration, or other forms of stimulus energy into nerve signals. |
| Receptor potential | Initial effect of a stimulus on a sensory cell, a small local electric change |
| Sensation | Subjective awareness of the stimulus |
| Modality | Type of stimulus or the sensation it produces. |
| By stimulus modality | Thermoreceptors, nociceptors, chemoreceptors, and mechanoreceptors. |
| Thermoreceptors | Respond to heat and cold. |
| Photoreceptors | The eyes, respond to light. |
| Nociceptors | Pain receptors, respond to tissue injury or situations that threaten to damage a tissue. |
| Chemoreceptors | Respond to chemicals, including odors, tastes, and body fluid composition. |
| Mechanoreceptors | Respond to physical deformation of a cell or tissue caused by vibration, touch, pressure, stretch, or tension. They include the organs of hearing and balance and many receptors of the skin, viscera, and joints. |
| Exteroceptors | Sense stimuli external to the body. They include the receptors for vision, hearing, taste, smell, and cutaneous sensations such as touch, heat, cold and pain. |
| Interoceptors | Detect stimuli in the internal organs such as the stomach, intestines, and bladder, and produce feelings of stretch, pressure, visceral pain, and nausea. |
| Proprioceptors | Sense the position and movements of the body or its parts. They occur in muscles, tendons, and joint capsules. |
| Free nerve endings | Warm receptors, cold receptors, and nocioceptors. |
| Cold receptors | Respond to falling temperatures. |
| Warm receptors | Respond to rising temperatures, |
| Nocioceptors | Respond to pain. |
| Tactile discs | Receptors for light touch. |
| Hair receptors | Dendrites that coil around a hair follicle and respond to movements of the hair. |
| Encapsulated nerve endings | Nerve fibers wrapped in glial cells or connective tissue. Many are mechanoreceptors for touch, pressure, and stretch. |
| Tactile corpuscles | Phasic receptors for light touch and texture. |
| End bulbs | Function similarly to tactile corpuscles, but are found in the mucous membranes. |
| Bulbous corpuscles | Receptors for heavy touch. |
| Lamellar corpuscles | Phasic receptors chiefly for vibration. |
| Sensory projection | Transmission of information from a receptor, or a receptive field, to a specific locality in the cerebral cortex, enabling the brain to detect and identify the stimulus. |
| Projection pathways | Paths sensory signals follow to their ultimate destinations in the CNS. |
| First-order fibers | for touch, pressure and proprioception, are large, myelinated, and fast. |
| Pain | Uncomfortable perception of tissue injury or noxious stimulation. |
| Nocioceptive pain | Stems from tissue injury such as cuts, burns and chemical irritation detected by nocioceptors. |
| Three kinds of nocioceptive pain | Visceral pain, deep somatic pain, and superficial somatic pain. |
| Visceral pain | Arises from internal organs. This pain is diffuse, dull, and hard to locate. Associated with sensations of squeezing, cramping, and nausea. |
| Causes of visceral pain | Stretch (overfull bladder or stomach), chemical irritation (intestional cramps and acid reflux) and ischemia (deficient blood flow, as in heart attacks and menstrual cramps). |
| Deep somatic pain | Arises from bones, joints, muscles, and related sources. Can be caused by arthritis, sprains, and bone fractures. Often results from excessive stretch (as in ankle sprain or pulled muscle), but can have other causes. |
| Superficial somatic pain | Usually arises from the skin. Cuts, burns, and insect stings can cause this pain. |
| Neuropathic pain | Stems from injuries to the nerves, spinal cord, meninges, or brain. Characterized by stabbing, burning, tingling, or 'electrical' sensations. Could be headache, phantom limb pain, or other conditions. |
| Fast pain | Immediate, sharp pain. Comes from myelinated A-delta nerve fibers. |
| Slow pain | Originates in small unmyelinated type C nerve fibers. It has a delayed and more burning or aching feeling. |
| Referred pain | Pain in the viscera mistakenly thought to come from the skin. |
| Enkephalins, dynorphins, and endorphins | Pain relieving chemicals (analgesic oligopeptides), has 200 times the strength of morphine. |
| Endogenous opioids | Enkephalins, dynorphins, and endorphins |
| Neuromodulators | Block the transmission of pain signals and produce feelings of pleasure and euphoria. |
| Spinal gating | Stopping pain at posterior horn. |
| Methods of spinal gating | Massage or descending analgesic fibers can block pain signals. |
| Lingual papillae | Visible bumps on the tongue that are not taste buds. |
| Tastants | Chemical stimuli of taste buds. |
| Filiform papillae | Tiny spikes without taste buds. |
| Foliate papillae | Taste buds on the sides of the tongue that degenerate in humans by the age of 2 or 3 years old. |
| Fungiform papillae | Shaped like mushrooms and have about three taste buds. Located especially on the tips and sides of the tongue, they respond to not only taste, but also food textures. |
| Vallate papillae | Arranged in a V shape at the rear of the tongue. There are only 7 to 12 vallate papille, but they contain up to half of all taste buds, 250 each. |
| Taste (gustatory) cells | More or less banana-shaped and have a tuft of apical microvilli called taste hairs. |
| Taste hairs | Apical microvilli which serve as receptor surfaces for tastants. |
| Taste pore | A pit that taste hairs project into. |
| How long do taste cells live for? | 7 to 10 days. |
| Basal cells | Stem cells that multiply and replace taste cells that have died, but also may play a role in processing sensory info. |
| Supporting cells | Resemble taste cells, but have no synaptic vesicles or sensory role. |
| Salty | Produced by metal ions such as sodium or potassium. |
| Sweet | Produced by many organic compounds, especially sugars. |
| Umami | "Meaty" taste produced by amino acids such as aspartic and glutamic acids. |
| Sour | Associated with acids in such foods as citrus. |
| Bitter | Associated with spoiled foods and alkaloids such as nicotine, caffeine, quinine, and morphine. |
| Oleogustus | Proposed name for taste of fats |
| Olfaction | The sense of smell |
| Odorants | Airborne chemicals. |
| Olfactory mucosa | Location of receptor cells in a patch of epithelium. |
| How many olfactory cells are there? | There are 10 to 20 million olfactory cells. |
| How are olfactory cells shaped? | Like bowling pins, the head of one contains 10 to 20 cilia called olfactory hairs. |
| Olfactory bulbs | Located under the frontal lobes of the brain. |
| Olfactory tracts | Bundles on the under side of the brain. |
| Primary olfactory cortex | Where odor is detected. |
| Sound | Any audible vibration of molecules. |
| Pitch | Our sense of whether a sound is high or low. |
| Middle ear | Located in the tympanic cavity of the temporal bone. |
| Ear drum | Tympanic membrane. |
| Mastoid cells | Air filled spaces in the mastoid process of the temporal bone. |
| Auditory (eustachian or pharyngotympanic) tube | Where air enters mastoid cells, a passageway to the nasopharynx |
| Auditory ossicles | The bones of the ear, the malleus, incus, and stapes. |
| Smallest bone in the ear | The stapes. |
| Oval window | Where the inner ear begins. |
| The muscles of the inner ear | Stapedius and tensor tympani. |
| Inner ear | Housed in a maze of temporal bone passages called the bony labyrinth. |
| Membranous labyrinth | System of fleshy tube lining the bony labyrinth. |
| Perilymph | Cushion of fluid between the bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth. |
| Endolymph | Fluid in the membranous labyrinth. |
| Vestibule | Contains organs of equilibrium and is the beginning chamber of the labyrinths. |
| Cochlea | Organ of hearing. |
| Modiolus | Screw-like bony axis that the cochlea winds around. |
| Chambers of the cochlea | Scala vestibuli, scala tympani, and cochlear duct (scala duct). |
| Spiral (acoustic) organ | A thick epithelium of sensory and supporting cells and associated membranes. This device converts vibrations into nerve impulses. |
| Hair cells | Named for the long, stiff microvilli called stereocilia. |
| Stereocilia | Aren't true cilia. They don't have an axoneme of microtubules as seen in cilia, and they don't move by themselves. |
| Tectorial membrane | Gelatinous substance resting on top of the stereocilia. |
| Spiral organ | Has four rows of haircells about 3,500 of these, called inner hair cells (IHCs), are arranged in a row. 20,000 outer hair cells (OHCs) are in the spiral organ too. |
| Within the cochlear duct | Is the spiral organ. |
| Tympanic reflex | Muffles the transfer of vibrations to the oval window. |
| Tip link | A fine, stretchy protein filament that extends like a spring from the ion channel of one stereocilium to the sidewall of the taller stereocilium next to it. |
| Spiral ganglion | A coil formed by the somas of bipolar sensory neurons, they are around the modiolus. |
| Cochlear nerve | Axons leading away from the cochlea. |
| Vestibulocochlear nerve | The joined cochlear and vestibular nerve. |
| Binaural hearing | Comparing signals from the right and left ears to identify the direction from which a sound is coming. |
| Where are equilibrium's receptors? | They are in the vestibular apparatus. |
| The vestibular apparatus is made up of three semicircular ducts and 2 chambers | The chambers are the anterior saccule and posterior utricle. |
| Static equilibrium | Perception of the orientation of the head in space. |
| Dynamic equilibrium | The perception of motion or acceleration. |
| Linear acceleration | A change in velocity in a straight line, like riding in a car or elevator. |
| Angular acceleration | A change in the rate of rotation, such as when your car turns a corner or you swivel in a rotating chair. |
| Otolithic membrane | Gelatinous membrane that embeds the tip of the stereocilia and kinocilium. |
| Otoliths | Protein-calcium carbonate granules, which sense gravity and motion. |
| Macula sacculi | Hair cells respond to vertical acceleration and deceleration. If you're standing in an elevator, this part of the ear adjusts the hairs in your ear to the change. |
| What are rotary movements detected by? | Three semicircular ducts |
| Where are semicircular ducts located? | They are housed in the bony semicircular canals of the temporal bone. |
| What are ducts filled with? | Endolymph |
| What do ducts in the ear open into? | The utricle, and they end at the ampulla. |
| Ampulla | A sac with a mound of hair cells and supporting cells called the crista ampullaris. |
| Cupula | Where hair cells, their stereocilia, and a kinocilium are embedded. A gelatinous cap that extends from the crista to the roof of the ampulla. |
| Vestibular nerve | Merges with hair cells of the macula sacculi, macula utriculi, and semicircular ducts, synapses at their bases. |
| Vestibular nuclei | A complex of four nuclei that are led to by the fibers of the vestibular apparatus. |
| Vision | The perception of objects in the environment by means of the light they emit or reflect. |
| Light | Visible electromagnetic radiation. |
| Palpebral fissure | Separates eyelids. |
| Medial and lateral commissures | Where eyelids meet in the corners. |
| Tarsal plate | Waterline of the eye, it is a supportive fibrous layer |
| Tarsal glands | 20 to 25 glands in the tarsal plate, secrete an oil that coats the eye and reduces tear evaporation. |
| Conjunctiva | Transparent mucous membrane that covers the inner surface of the eyelid and inner surface of the eyelid and anterior surface of the eyeball, except the cornea. |
| Lacrimal apparatus | Consists of the lacrimal (tear) gland and a series of ducts that drain the tears into the nasal cavity. |
| Lacrimal gland | Tear gland, has 12 ducts that lead from the gland to the conjunctiva. |
| Six extrinsic eye muscles | There are four rectus (straight) muscles, and two oblique muscles. |
| Rectus muscles | Superior, inferior, medial and lateral. |
| Superior oblique | Travels along the medial wall of the orbit |
| Trochlea | Fibrocartilage ring |
| Inferior oblique | Extends from the medial wall of the orbit to the inferolateral aspect of the eye. |
| Orbital fat | Surrounds the eye on the sides and back. It cushions the eye, allows it to move freely, and protects blood vessels and nerves in the rear of the orbit. |
| Outer fibrous layer of the eye | The sclera and the cornea. |
| Sclera | White of the eye. |
| Cornea | Anterior transparent region of modified sclera that admits light into the eye. |
| Uvea | The middle vascular layer of the eye. |
| Three regions of the eye | The choroid, ciliary body, and iris. |
| Choroid | Highly vascular, deeply pigmented layer of tissue behind the retina. |
| Ciliary body | Muscular ring around the lens. It supports the iris and secretes a fluid called aqueous humor. |
| Iris | Adjustable diaphragm that controls the diameter of the pupil (its central opening). |
| 2 layers of the iris | A posterior pigment epithelium, and anterior border layer |
| Posterior pigment epithelium | Blocks stray light from reaching the retina |
| Anterior border layer | Contains pigmented cells called chromatophores. |
| Inner layer | The retina and the beginning of the optic nerve. |
| Aqueous humor | Serous fluid secreted by the ciliary body into a space called the posterior chamber. |
| Posterior chamber | Between the iris and lens. |
| Anterior chamber | Between the iris and cornea. |
| Scleral venous sinus | Circular vein in the eye. |
| How aqueous fluid travels through the eye | Secreted by the ciliary body, into the posterior chamber, to the anterior chamber, and then is reabsorbed by the scleral venous sinus. |
| Lens | Composed of flattened, tightly compressed, transparent cells called lens fibers. |
| Where is the lens suspended? | Behind the pupil by a ring of fibers called suspensory ligament. |
| What is the vitreous body? | A transparent jelly that fills a space called the vitreous chamber behind the lens. |
| What does the vitreous body do? | Maintains intraocular pressure within the eye, which supports its spherical shape. |
| Retina | Forms from a cup-shaped outgrowth of the diencephalon called the optic vesicle. |
| Optic vesicle | A part of the brain, the only part that can be viewed without dissection. |
| Optic disc | Where the optic nerve leaves the rear (fundus) of the eye. |
| Ora serrata | Scalloped anterior margin. |
| Cataracts | Clouding of the lenses occurring with age as lens fibers darken and fluid-filled clefts accumulate debris from degenerating fibers. |
| Glaucoma | A state of elevated pressure within the eye that occurs when the scleral venous sinus is obstructed so aqueous humor isn't reabsorbed as fast as it is secreted. |
| Macular degeneration | Death of receptor cells in the macula, the central part of the retina and location of the sharpest vision. |
| Diabetic retinopathy | Causes most adult blindness in the U.S. It is a retinal degeneration caused by the effects of diabetes mellitus on the blood vessels that nourish the retina. |
| Detached retina | Can happen if there is insufficient pressure from the vitreous body, or blows to the head. Can cause blurry areas in the field of vision or blindness if the retina is separated from the blood supply in the choroid for too long. |
| Macula lutea | About 3 mm in diameter, and directly posterior to the center of the eye. |
| Fovea centralis | Produces the most finely detailed images. |
| Nerve fibers from all regions of the retina converge and leave in a bundle where? | In the optic nerve |
| Blood vessels travel through the core of the ________ and enter and leave the eye at the __________. | optic nerve, optic disc |
| Blindspot | Created by the optic disc's absence of receptor cells. |
| Visual filling | When one image disappears because the brain uses the image surrounding the blind spot to fill in the area with similar but imaginary information. |
| Saccades | Minute flickering movements that ensure that the same area of the visual field doesn't project onto the same area of the retina. |
| Pupillary constrictor | Consists of smooth muscle cells that encircle the pupil. When stimulated by the parasympathetic nervous system, it narrows the pupil and admits less light in the eye. |
| Pupillary dilator | Consists of spoke like arrangement of contractile myoepithelial cells. When simulated by the sympathetic nervous system, these cells contract, widen the pupil, and admit more light to the eye. |
| Photo pupillary reflex | Pupillary constriction in response to light. |
| Emmetropia | State in which the eye is relaxed and focused on an object more than 6 m (20 ft) away, the light rays coming from that object are essentially parallel, and the rays are focused on the retina without effort. |
| Near response | Adjustment of the eyes to close range vision, this involves three processes. |
| Convergence of the eyes | Orients the visual axis of each eye toward the object in order to focus its image on each fovea. |
| Diplopia | Double vision, occurs when the extrinsic muscles are weaker in one eye than the other. |
| Constriction of the pupil | Lenses can't refract light rays at their edges as well as they can closer to the center, so the pupils adjust the light intake. |
| Accommodation of the lens | Accommodation is a change in the curvature of the lens that enables you to focus on a nearby object. When you look at something nearby, the ciliary muscle surrounding the lens contracts. |
| Focusing on a nearby object | When the diameter of the ciliary body narrows, relaxes the fibers of the suspensory ligament, and allows the lens to relax into a more convex shape. |
| Astigmatism | Inability to focus light rays that enter the eye on different planes. |
| Hyperopia | Farsightedness |
| Myopia | Nearsightedness |
| Presbyopia | Reduced ability to accommodate for near vision with age. Caused by declining flexibility of lenses. |
| Pigmented layer | Most posterior part of the retina. Which serves, like the black inside of a film camera, to absorb stray light so it doesn't reflect back through the retina and degrade the visual image. |
| Neural layer of the retina | Has three principal cell layers. From the rear of the eye going forward are photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells. |
| Photoreceptor cells | Absorb light and generate a chemical or electrical signal. There are three kinds: rods, cones, and certain ganglion cells. Only rods and cones produce visual images. |
| Rods and cones | Aren't neurons, but are related to the ependymal cells of the brain. Each rod or cone has an outer segment that points toward the wall of the eye and an inner segment facing the interior. |
| Rod cells | Responsible for night (scotopic) vision and produce images only in shades of gray (monochromatic vision). Contain rhodopsin. |
| Cone cells | Day (photopic) vision as well as color (trichromatic) vision. |
| Rod and cone discs | Added at the proximal (basal) end, and shed from the distal end of the cells. |
| Bipolar cells | Rods and cones synapse with the dendrites of bipolar cells, the first-order neurons of the visual pathway. They in turn synapse with the ganglion cells. |
| Ganglion cells | Are the largest neurons of the retina, arranged in a single layer close to the vitreous body. |
| 2nd order neurons of the visual pathway | Ganglion cells. |
| Control pupillary diameter and the body's circadian rhythms, don't contribute to visual images but detect light intensity | The ganglion cells are responsible for these functions. |
| Ganglion sensory pigment | Melanopsin |
| Horizontal and amacrine cells | Form horizontal connections between rods, cones, and bipolar cells. Intervene in the pathways from receptor cells to ganglion cells. Enhance the perception of contrast, edges of objects, and changes in light intensity. |
| Visual pigment of the rods | Rhodopsin or visual purple. It consists of a protein opsin and a vitamin A derivative called retinene or retinal. |
| Cis-retinal | The bent shape of rods adjusted to the dark. |
| Bleaching | When cis-retinal shaped rods absorb light and it changes to a straight form called trans-retinal. This is caused bleaching because purified rhodopsin changes from violet to colorless in the light. |
| Light adaptation | An adjustment in vision that occurs when you go from a dark or dimly lit area into brighter light. Your eyes need 5 to 10 minutes to adjust. |
| Dark adaptation | Your eyes adjustment to see in the dark, it takes 20 to 30 minutes to reach essentially maximum sensitivity. |
| Duplicity theory | The theory that says we need both rods and cones to produce both high sensitivity and high resolution. |
| Short-wavelength (S) cones | peak sensitivity at a wavelength of 420 nm |
| Medium-wavelength (M) cones | Peak at 531 nm |
| Long-wavelength (L) cones | Peak at 558 nm |
| Color blindness | When some individuals have a hereditary alteration or lack of one photopsin or another. |
| Stereoscopic vision (stereopsis) | Depth perception. |
| Optic chiasm | Where optic nerves leave their orbit through the optic canal and converge to form an X. |
| Optic tracts | The continuation of the same nerves from the optic chiasm. |
| Hemidecussation | The half of the fibers from the each optic nerve that cross over to the opposite side of the brain. |
| Lateral geniculate nucleus | Where most axons of the optic tracts end (part of the thalamus). |
| Optic radiation | Where third order-neurons arise and form fibers in the white matter of the cerebrum. |
| Ventral stream | One pathway that runs forward through the lower temporal lobe. It carries signals mainly from cone cells and the central part of the retina. Concerned with color vision, object recognition and visual memory (ability to read, recognize faces, et cetera). |
| Dorsal stream | Runs forward through the upper parietal lobe. It carries signals mainly from rods and the peripheral retina. It is concerned with recognizing the locations and spatial relationship of objects and with analysis of motion. |
| Autonomic system | Regulates states and life processes like heart rate, BP, and body temp |
| ANS | Controls glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle |
| Visceral Motor System | Alternate name for the autonomic system |
| Visceral Reflexes | Unconscious, automatic, stereotyped responses to stimulation involving visceral receptors and effectors |
| Receptors | Nerve endings that detect stretch, tissue damage, blood chemicals, body temperature, and other internal stimuli |
| Integrating center | Interneurons in the CNS |
| Effectors | Carry out end response |
| ANS | Considered the efferent pathway |
| Afferent neurons | Lead to CNS |
| Efferent neurons | Carry motor signals away from the CNS |
| Muscarinic receptors bind | acetycholine |
| Which of the following cranial nerves carries sympathetic fibers? | None of them |
| Epinephrine is secreted by | the adrenal medulla |
| The autonomic nervous system innervates all of these except | skeletal muscle |
| The gray communicating ramus contains | sympathetic postganglionic fibers |
| Certain nerve fibers are called __ fibers because they secrete norepinephrine. | adrenergic |
| Sympathetic fibers to blood vessels maintain a state of partial vasoconstriction called | vasomotor tone |
| Select all that apply to the parasympathetic division: | Oculomotor nerve (III) Heart Kidney |
| Hot and cold stimuli are detected by | free nerve endings |
| Enkephalin | is a neuromodulator that blocks the conduction of pain signals by second-order spinal neurons. |
| Enkephalin | is a neuromodulator that blocks the conduction of pain signals by second-order spinal neurons. |
| The higher the frequency of a sound, ___. | the higher its pitch |
| The acceleration you feel when an elevator begins to rise is sensed by ___. | macula sacculi |
| The retina receives its oxygen supply from ___. | the choroid |
| Which of the following statements about photopic vision is false? | It has a low threshold |
| The visual pigment of a cone cell is ___. | photopsin |
| The ___ is a tiny bone that vibrates in the oval window and thereby transfers sound vibrations to the inner ear. | stapes |
| The function of the ___ in a taste bud is to replace dead taste cells. | basal cells |
| In the phenomenon of ___, pain from the viscera is perceived as coming from an area of the skin. | referred pain |
| Up-regulation | is a process in which a cell increases its number of receptors for a hormone, thus increasing its hormone sensitivity and response. |
| The dominant hormone in the stage of resistance of the stress response ___. | cortisol |
| The ___ develops from a pouch in the phayrnx of the embryo. | adenohyposis |
| Which of these cells stimulate bone deposition? | C cells |
| Which of the following is not a hormone? | thyroxine-binding globulin |
| Which of these hormones relies on cAMP as a seond messenger? | ACTH |
| Which of these has more exocrine than endocrine tissue? | the pancreas |
| CRH secretion would not raise the blood concentration of _ _ | thyroxine |
| Which hormone would no longer be secreted if the hypothalamo-hypophysical tract were destroyed? | oxytocin |
| Where are the receptors for insulin located? | on the target-cell membrane |
| Serum is blood plasma minus its ___. | clotting proteins |
| It is impossible for a type O+ baby to have a type ___ mother. | AB- |
| Which of the following contributes most to the viscosity of blood? | Erythrocytes |
| Excess iron is stored in the liver as a complex called ___. | ferritin |
| The first clotting factor that the intrinsic and extrensic pathways have in common is ___. | factor X |
| Production of all the formed elements of blood is called ___. | hematopoiesis |
| What is the vasodilator that widens the blood vessels and speeds the flow of blood to an injured tissue? | Nitric oxide |
| This leukocyte destroys cancer cells, cells infected with viruses, and foreign cells as well as coordinates the actions of other immune cells. | T lymphocytes |
| Clotting factors, such as fibrin, Factor X, and Factor XI, are called ___. | thrombins |
| A ___ may grow large enough to obstruct a small vessel, or a piece of it may break loose and begin to travel in the bloodstream as an embolus. | thrombus |
Created by:
andrea.stahl
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