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Watershed Final
hhhhhhhhhere we go
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| natal fidelity | going home to spawn |
| finding home | home-site olfactory bouquet (HSOB) • smell of home imprinting when young |
| smell of home | organic compounds, dissolved minerals, other? |
| why go home | successful in past, temp/substrate/flow/food/low predation, immunological imprinting |
| terroir | sense of place -soil type, water type/drainage, sunlight. All influence tastes of food, which we can distinguish |
| East coast migratory fish | anadromous – shad, striped bass, alewife herring |
| Conservation equation steps | What is the question (Delta storage/dtime = inputs-outputs). Control v (reservoir). Conservative quantities (amount of water in/out). Define inputs & outputs (defines mass balance) |
| Conservation equation | dv/dt = P + ET + G + Q + D |
| Residence time | sink/flux |
| Vapor pressure | the pressure exerted by a particular gas |
| Relative Humidity | actual vp/saturation vp |
| Temp & VP function | exponential. higher temp, more vapor air can hold |
| sling cycrometer | You spin it around. Water on the sock evaporates. Energy facilitates phase transition (latent heat of vaporization). Difference in temp between wet and dry shows us percent when we look at a chart. |
| Ideal Gas Law | P/Tapa = R o P = air pressure o Ta = air temp o pa = air mass density o R = constant |
| Adiabatic process | temp change that occur without a loss/gain of energy – occur because of a change in pressure |
| Types of precip | Convection -movement of material due to differences in density Orographic uplift -mountains & stuff Frontal -wedges cold under warm, warm forced to rise |
| Precipitation gauge types | -nonrecording storage gauge (kinda just a cylinder that rain goes in) -recording tipping bucket gauge (every time it tips, it’s recorded. So we have volume of water/time) -recording optical gauge (laser & panel) |
| Hyetograph | graph measuring rainfall/time -measured in inches^3/in^2 |
| Mariotte system (ET) | put a bubbler apparatus on a lysimeter in the field and watch how water is displaced over time |
| Lysimeter method (ET) | fill lysimeters with plants & soil in the lab and watch how the weight changes over time • could work if area is all small plants, not big forests |
| Class A evaporation pan method (ET) | fill class A evaporation pan with known water level, assume rate of evaporation is comparable to rate of evapotranspiration • rates aren’t the same |
| How does vegetated ET compare to E | Overall more vegetated evapotranspiration than open water evaporation. Area leaf/ground area. More leaf area → more evapotranspiration relative to open water |
| C3 vs C4 plants | • C3 plant (trees) o Relies entirely on pulling CO2 from atmosphere. Has to have stomata open to photosynthesize. • C4 plant (grasses) o Concentrates CO2 in mesophyll cell o Doesn’t have to have stomata open necessarily to photosynthesize |
| Most accurate ET method | -figure out the leaf area index of the vegetation and use as a proxy -use a series of equations relating temp, relative humidity, wind speed, vapor pressure, and try to use those to figure out what ET should be. |
| Requirements for plants | -liquid water -rooting medium -nutrients -sunlight -successful reproductive strategy |
| Liquid water & plants | • reactant in photosynthesis (forms polymer cellulose) • cell support – turgidity vs wilting • transpirational stream • precip temporal distribution & phase • climate – temperature & rainfall • distribution of rainfall can be concentrated storms |
| Recurrence Interval | • calculate probability o P = m/(n+1) o m is rank o n is # of years of data • recurrence interval o T = 1/P |
| precipitation frequency plot (intensity-duration-frequency plot) | uses recurrence interval |
| storm intensity | amount/time |
| Climate change & the hydrosphere | -increased flooding -increased drought -more intense hurricanes aka our rainfall frequencies might not be applicable now because of how much the climate has changed |
| Taiga | boreal forest (like Canada, Alaska, Russia) |
| Tundra | in cold ecosystems, grasslands thrive because permafrost melts only at the surface |
| Precipitation & vegetation interaction | -amounts of water, phase, quantity, etc -climate changes vegetation -vegetation can vary based on microclimate (spatial scales) -also varies over temporal scales |
| Vegetation variation over temporal scales | succession, pulse & press |
| succession | changes in plant community structure over time following a disturbance o bare soil → grasses → shrubs → intermediate tree → large trees (climax community species, replace themselves) o time scale dependent on lifespan & how seeds are transported |
| models of succession | facilitation – early colonizers prep enviro for later species. inhibition – early colonizers keep others out until they die. tolerance – early colonizers exploit open space & available nutrients, later species tolerate worse conditions & live longer |
| pulse vs press | pulse - land clearing, landslide, forest fire, development. press - deer browse (possibly fire) |
| Overland flow | • saturated – all available pore space is filled (tends to be areas of lower relief) • hortonian – because the soil isn’t letting the water get through. Probs faster than saturated, cm/sec |
| Watershed transfer functions | Overland flow, directly falling on channel, subsurface flow, human influences (like storm drains) |
| Subsurface flow (infiltration) | • groundwater flow – moves cm/hr • subsurface storm flow – can move laterally or whatever if there’s a lot of pore space (burrows, root casts). Moving above the groundwater |
| Flow pathways vary depending upon surface conditions | -differing land use • urban – hof • crop – hof • valley floor – sof • forest – gw -soil type -lithology -vegetation |
| Variable source concept | seasonal changes in antecedent moisture -how much moisture is already there when the storm occurs? |
| soil influence on infiltration | -pore size -are the pore spaces infiltrated or not -are the pore spaces connected or not -vegetation • could fall on the tree & evaporate back up right away • could run down the trunk & deliver water more slowly to the surface |
| vernal pools | only happen in the winter when there’s snow melt -saturated soils -standing water -ephemeral -amphibian breeding habitat (no predators) • issue if the precip is acidic • cows like them -maybee salamander is found in water with a pH of 4 |
| 6/10 depth rule | measure velocity at top of flow and use exponential flow curve equation to get average (6/10 of the way down) |
| Mannings Equation | v = (k R^2/3 S^1/2)/n |
| Hydraulic Radius | • R = A/WP A = cross sectional area WP = wetted perimeter (distance from one side to the other, following the curve of the bottom of the stream) So really it’s just the depth. As it gets deeper, v goes up |
| Water Slope | • S = (d water elevation)/(dx) • As it gets steeper, v goes up |
| Friction Factor | • bigger n, slower water • rocks, trees, vegetation, debris, shape of channel • places like storm sewers, aqueducts, hydroelectric plants, etc we would want low friction |
| unit dependent constant | K |
| Assume that the depth is about the same as the hydraulic radius | -v = (k d^2/3 s^1/2)/(n) -Q = (k d^5/3 s^1/2)/(n) w |
| Gauging stations | -stilling well -float & pulley, bubbler, conductive tape, or pressure transducer to measure water height -data storage |
| stormwater management | slow down water by increasing roughness (riprap, stormwater drains, etc)(bioswaler) |
| Case study - California Drought | 30% of US produce grown in CA, desalination plants becoming cost effective |
| Hydrograph | rising, peak Q, receding. __/^\__ Storm flow is anything above base flow |
| Lag-to-peak | how long from when rate starts to when peak discharge occurs. more intense storm = shorter L2P bc it promotes overland flow. long L2P = flat landscape w lots of infiltration (more groundwater movement) |
| time to rise | time from when flow begins to when peak Q occurs. more intense storm = shorter T2R bc it promotes overland flow |
| Controls on hydrograph | system efficiency, amount & length of P (influence length of graph), anthropogenic landscape characteristics, saturation rate |
| Hydrographs going downstream | -more water volume as you go downstream (bigger watershed above point as you go downstream) -lag to peak increases downstream (water has to travel a longer distance, so takes a longer time) -bigger peak discharge as you go downstream |
| attenuation | taking something sharp (lots of volume, short period of time) and spreading it out over time |
| Promotion of storage (things leading to pondage) | -higher friction • vegetation, rocks, etc -shape of the channel • shallow & wide = slower velocities -restrictions • dams, or just channel narrowing |
| Promotion of translation | Lower friction, deep & narrow, no restrictions |
| Hydrographs, pondage, & translation | -pondage – longer hydrograph, lower peak downstream -translation – narrower hydrograph, higher peak downstream |
| Humans ruin stuff with levees | -levees keep it in place & promoting translation (gets deeper instead of wider) -doing that makes it worse for communities downstream that can’t do that (disadvantages lower income communities) |
| What happens to a hydrograph as you go downstream? | more water volume (bigger watershed above point) lag to peak increases (water has to travel a longer distance, so takes a longer time) bigger peak discharge as you go downstream |
| normalized hydrographs | discharge divided by drainage area |
| attenuation | taking something sharp (lots of volume, short period of time) and spreading it out over time |
| Promotion of storage (things that lead to pondage) | -higher friction • vegetation, rocks, etc -shape of the channel • shallow & wide = slower velocities -restrictions • dams, or just channel narrowing longer hydrograph, lower peak downstream |
| translation | (water leaves quickly once it travels through that reach) narrower hydrograph, higher peak downstream |
| Humans ruin stuff | -levees keep it in place & promoting translation (gets deeper instead of wider) -doing that makes it worse for communities downstream that can’t do that (disadvantages lower income communities) |
| Probability (P) | percentage chance of getting rank 1 or more as the largest number for the observational period |
| Recurrence Interval (RI) | tells us on average, once out of # data (years, coin tosses etc.) you’ll get rank 1 or # greater as the max number in the experiment, every 28th experiment |
| 100 year flood = | On average, once every hundred years, a flood of this size or greater will be the biggest flood in that year. Well we don’t have that much data, so the 100 year flood is changed every year. |
| Annual exceedance probability | how likely is it that you equal or exceed the biggest flow in a year? |
| Flood frequency | has to be normally distributed, so you can have a bell curve. If it’s normally distributed, it will be linear on a log log plot. They insist that annual flood data is independent of previous years, but they can’t be. |
| carbonic acid | CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid) ←→ H + HCO3 H2CO3 (in H2O) → H + HCO3 (biocarbonate ion) • pH of 5.8 |
| Associated with chemical weathering | -water hydrolysis -acid carbonation -oxidation |
| Dissolution of limestone | CaCO3 + H + Cl → Ca + CO3 = H + Cl |
| What ions dissolve in water? | -easily • Na+ • K+ • Cl- • SO4— -less easily • Ca++ • Mg++ • CO3-- -hard • Al+4 • Fe+2 • Si+4 |
| Water hardness | (softeners dissolve Ca & Mg) |
| CO2 & H2O ←light & plants→ CH2O (organic matter) + O2 | ^Photosynthesis. Classic redox reaction (one being oxidized, one being reduced) Carbon dioxide is reduced, water loses electrons & is oxidized LEO(loss of electrons is oxidation) GER (gain of electrons is reduced) |
| Who’s photosynthesizing? | Autotrophs -plants -algae -bacteria |
| Nitrogen & Phosphorus | -N is involved in proteins & amino acids -P is involved in ATP (produces energy), DNA, and cell membranes |
| Respiration & heterotrophs | The energy we get is stored as ATP Phosphate & Ammonium are excreted • PO4--- • NH4+ • NO3- If there’s high levels of respiration in a body of water, the oxygen use might exceed how fast the atmosphere can replenish it |
| Alternate Terminal Electron Acceptors (bacteria that oxidize organic matter to yield CO2 without utilizing oxygen) | -one uses organics & Nitrate (NO3-), which yields N2 gas (and CO2) -one uses iron hydroxides (Fe(OH)3), which yields Fe+2 -one uses sulfate (SO4--), yields H2S -one uses CO2, yields CH4 (which is called Methanogenesis) |
| Projected source amounts of N from watersheds to large river systems in the year 2030: | -40% from synthetic fertilizer -40% from atmosphere • nitric acid -20% from STP (sewage treatment plants) |
| solubility | CO2(dissolved) = Sc x pCO2 • Sc is solubilty constant o Sensitive to temperature • p is partial pressure (of CO2 in the atmosphere) |
| Temperature increases, conductivity should increase | CO2 is more soluble in water as the temperature is lower. So solubility constant goes up. As the p goes up, we get more CO2 dissolved in the water |
| atmospheric vs soil pore CO2 | Rainfall has adjusted pH dependent on the gasses in the atmosphere. Decomposing organic matter in subsurface fills pore space with CO2, leading to a higher concentration (trapped, can’t escape into atm). CO2 in atmosphere is 0.04%, 0.25% in soil |
| precipitation of calcite | CaCO3 + H2CO3 ←→ Ca2+ + 2HCO3 As it reaches the surface & pressure decreases, calcite re-precipitates As temp goes up, liquid is less able to hold dissolved gas. Plants remove CO2, which reduces carbonic acid (and again, causes calcite to precipitate) |
| Travertine | occurs where there are abundant limestones and waterfalls. Waterfalls basically like shaking the bottle of soda. Used for housing, pyramids, Spanish steps, tiles. |
| types of Phosphate (PO4) | • Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorous (DIP) • Dissolved Organic Phosphorous (DOP) • Particulate Inorganic Phosphorous (PIP) o Could be a mineral o Could be sorbed onto some other particle • Particulate Organic Phosphorous (POP) o Diatom, leaves, people |
| Phosphate and closed root systems | moving between organic and inorganic within the same system (organics die, are broken down, gasses are fixed by organisms at roots). Doesn’t have an atmospheric form, very rarely gaseous. |
| N cycle | ??? |
| Molar ratios for N & P | -the incorporation of DIN and DIP from the environment into organic matter generally occurs at a molar ratio of 16:1 |
| Non-molar ratios for N & P | -if N:P >> 16:1, then the ratio is large and the organisms are considered P-limited. Freshwater. -if N:P << 16:1, then the ratio is small and that means the organisms are probably limited by the availability of N. They are N-limited. Saltwater. |
| energy flows in aquatic systems | • light • inorganic molecules • organic molecules |
| light | • light o photoautotrophs o the earth re?00 W/m^2 o the remainder of all that power, roughly 1%, is used in the process of photosynthesis o who photosynthesizes? • Plants, bacteria, protists o o o Use of water, oxygen gets o |
| inorganic molecules | • inorganic molecules o used to create organic matter o c?eir geochemical oxidation provides the energy for reductive biosynthesis? o ahhh o ahhhh |
| organic molecules | • organic molecules o heterotrophs present in all kingdoms of organisms, reduced carbon as an energy source o with some obvious exceptions, the direct source of energy to most aquatic systems is photosynthesis |
| Photosynthesis limited by | -light -water -nutrients like CO2, N, P -reaction rates |
| 1st law of thermodynamics | -energy (mass) is neither created nor destroyed -energy may flow into and out of aquatic ecosystems, it may be converted from light to chemical to heat energy, but it never arises from nothing or disappears outright |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | -no conversion of energy is 100% efficient -systems that exhibit order tend to disorder unless energy is input to maintain order -nothing lasts forever -aquatic and …. |
| Surface & groundwater contamination across the nation | -what are the major contaminants of concern? • Nitrogen • Dissolved C • Phosphorous • Heavy metals • Suspended sediment -what are the primary sources? • Urban & agricultural runoff • Human atmospheric contamination |
| Herbicides & emerging contaminants | -many are unregulated -when herbicides decay, their products are not regulated. And we don’t know much about the products. -and we don’t know what happens when you mix together even the regulated contaminants. |
| Herbicides & emerging contaminants2 | We know what chemical x does to you on its own over a certain level, but we don’t know what chemical x does when mixed with chemicals y & z. -roundup is in 75% of all water and air samples in the US. And it causes cancer. |
| Endocrine disruptors | • normally hormone attached to receptor causes a cell to react in a certain way • disruptors are hormone mimics, makes cell have a reaction (could be under-reaction, overreaction, reaction block) |
| Net Primary Production | -this is the reduced organic matter (unit of currency that can be converted to kcal of energy) available to all the other heterotrophs in the ecosystem. The autotrophs fuel the heterotrophs. -NPP is the amount of CH2O available to heterotrophs |
| How do you measure NPP in aquatic ecosystems? | o Filter o Measure oxygen production -there is allochthonous organic matter (derived from outside water body) • leaves, food, fecal matter, runoff, etc. -also autochthonous production (occurs within) |
| energy & water movement | • Kinetic o KE = ½mv^2 • Potential o PE = mgz (z is height) • Hydrostatic – water is still o v is 0 o H = z + P/pg o So P=pgh (h is depth below the surface) o So H = z + h |
| Head describes the energy that the water has | o PE → elevation head, z • Z is elevation of water o KE → velocity head, v^2/2g • Velocity of water o Pressure head → P/pg (p as roh) |
| Total head is the sum of all individual components | o H = z + v^2/2g + P/pg o Units are in length o Tells us about the energy of water/weight of water |
| capillary action | generation of negative pressure that pulls liquid into small spaces. In nature, generated by pores in soil |
| porosity | n = volume of void space/total volume of material. Can only be between 0 & 1 |
| volumetric water content | O = volume of water/total volume of material. Max value of that is always porosity. So O can only be less than or equal to porosity. saturation is when O = n |
| field capacity | Ofc = volume of water after gravity drainage/total volume of material |
| wilting point | Owp = volume of water after plants cannot remove water/ total volume of material. clay has highest field capacity and wilting point. |
| Energy of water is total head | -pressure head • P/pg -velocity head • v^2/2g -elevation head • z |
| recharge area | above potentiometric surface |
| Head and confined vs unconfined | -at the top of an unconfined aquifer, all of the head is elevation head (water table) -everywhere in the confined aquifer, the pressure head > zero • so in a well, it will rise to at least the top of the aquifer, but often higher than the aquifer itself |
| aquiclude = aquifuge | layers that don’t allow thing to move through them very easily, it almost doesn’t go through at all |
| aquitard | water moves through it, but pretty slowly |
| Hydraulic gradient | -change in head/distance • so basically rise/run |
| specific discharge graph | hydraulic gradient on x, specific discharge on y -it’s q = -K * dH/dx • q is specific discharge • K is the slope of the line and it’s negative • dH/dx is the hydraulic gradient |
| Darcy’s law | • Q = -KA * dH/dx o A is cross sectional area o K is the hydraulic conductivity, based on material • K = k (pg/M) K is still conductivity p is density of fluid g is gravity M is viscosity k is permeability (connectedness of pore spaces) |
| Aquifer Materials | • Gravel • Clean sand • Permeable basalt • Karst limestone |
| Aquiclude materials | • Unweathered marine clay • Unfractured crystalline rocks • Shale |
| Aquitard Materials | • Silty sand • Silt • Loess • Glacial till • Sandstone • Carbonates • Fractures crystalline rocks |
| Darcy's law & mean velocity | v = K/n (dH/dx) |
| Developmental instability | developmental mistakes that occur under environmental circumstances that deviate from normal |
| Contouring by percentages | -one point at 924, one at 677. CI = 100m -total change in head = 247 -change in head between 677 & 200 = 23m -total/increment = 23/247 = 0.093 -multiply that by 100 (CI) -so it’s 9.3% of the way between the two |
| cone of depression | In unconfined aquifers, the hydraulic gradient causes the water table to dip down toward the water level in the well |
| capture zone | in large cones of depression close enough to saline water bodies an area can be sucked up by the wells |
| grain compression | grains can compress under weight above it. And the pressure head holds them in place as well. Both forces opposite of gravity. |
| groundwater subsidence | as we lower the water table, we lose the force due to the pressure head, and to compensate for that and keep it balanced, the grains compress even further. So everything sitting on top of those grains go down. |
| Urban Hydrology | impacts of development on runoff pathways, consequences, and mitigating the effects |
| magnitude | work done to the channel over long periods of time |
| Dominant discharge | that median where the frequency line crosses the magnitude line. It's the tip top of a sediment load (y) vs Q (x) diagram -bankfull Q is the same as dominant Q |
| How often does the channel forming flow occur? | ranges from once yearly to 3-3.5 years. Disagreement in scientific literature. |
| How big is the change from urbanization? | discharge increases, so does Q. can be 4-5x larger, so channels will have to do that too |
| Streams vs ponds | streams have less extreme temp variation, higher conductivity, higher fecal coliform, lower pH, more nitrates, lower O2 and O2 saturation |
| Stormwater retention ponds | -dam that holds water -water comes in opposite the dam -shallow vegetated area to slow water down -suspended settles out before it goes downstream, in sediment forebay -controls 2 year 24 hour storm -emergency spillways |
| VA development standards for peak flow | o 2 year post development peak flow may not exceed the 2-year pre development flow (but they develop on agricultural land and stuff) |
| James City County development standards for peak flow | o 24 hour retention of the 1-year, 24 hour SCS rainfall event o retention assumed to accomplish water quality goals (60% reduction in total phosphorous) |
| Using the rational method to find lag time | -what’s the slope? -what’s the land cover? • Land cover coefficient -find your longest distance of flow, go over to the slope, go down until you find the runoff coefficient, then go right to time on the Y |
| Rational Method Equation | CiA -C is runoff coefficient -i is rainfall intensity (in/hr) • 2 yr 24 hr = 0.14 -A is drainage basin area (acres) |
| Why is the SCS most widely used? | -computationally simple -readily available watershed info -packaged for ease of use -results appear reasonable -few other methods that don’t require detailed watershed information |
| Best management practices | stormwater retention ponds • reduce speed • remove sediment • reduce amount of water • ultimately, improving water quality o protecting watershed o prevent channels from getting bigger |
| Evaluation of retention ponds | -in real life, do constructed ponds • protect streams? • Mimic predevelopment conditions? • Meet regulatory requirements? • Function in a manner consistent with design? |
| why is retention time so short in real retention ponds? | Ponds hold 24 hours worth of water, and pipes that drain it over 24 hours, but that means the water only stays in there on average 12 hours, so you need a smaller pond 1/2 the centeroid lag we wanted. Ponds don’t even meet 12 hour requirements |
| rainfall delivery patters | •rainfall over time makes S shape, they choose a wider one than actual rainfall. •they start off with high intensity (likely that rainfall delivery > infiltration rate) •every storm that we actually got was more than the intensity calculation we use |
| BMPs and water quality | •60% reduction in P is regulatory standard •measured 9 storms •for a couple storms P was added. •Bio impacts? Species downstream of developed < undeveloped. More taxa in reference ponds than downstream of stormwater ponds |
| EPA bay program | • baywide approach to water quality standards • swimmable, fishable • TMDL (total maximum daily load) • Pollution diet – states that contribute have to set reduction targets – Water Implementation Plans |
| Total Maximum Daily Load through the Bay | 207.57 million pounds |
| TMDL | incorporated into the CB watershed agreement, considers wastewater, creates “what if” scenarios, is a max while still meeting standards, watersheds feeding into CB need to create WIPs |
| WIPs | (watershed implementation plans) places have to individually identify their plans (like even at W&M – we have to have our own) |
| Small MS4s must develop 6 minimum control measures | •public ed & outreach on impacts •public involvement & participation •illicit discharge detection & elimination •constr site storm water runoff control •post-constr storm water mgmt in a new development •pollution prevention/ good housekeeping |
| Riparian buffers | Required for agricultural areas, but channels are flowing through the forest, not infiltrating, not being absorbed -75% to 50% of most fields are drained by a maximum of 10 points |
| hydrostatic | water is not moving → h + Z where h is height of water above a point, where Z is the elevation of the water |
| vadose zone | (in the vadose zone, pressure head is negative due to capillary action of unfilled pore spaces) composed of rooting, intermediate, and capillary zones |
| rooting zone | •so there’s the layer where all the roots are, and that’s the rooting zone, where plants’ roots can reach o rooting zone – lowest amount of water = wilting point of overlying vegetation |
| intermediate zone | •then there’s between the capillary fringe and the rooting zone, which is the intermediate zone o intermediate zone – lowest amount of water = field capacity |
| capillary fringe | •then there’s the capillary fringe where capillary pressure/action pulls water up |
| groundwater zone | under the start of the water table , where P/pg = 0 (pressure head = 0) o as you go down in the groundwater zone, pressure head increases |
| Why do we care about groundwater? | -agriculture, contaminants, skin holes (florida), height of water table influences vegetation growth, flooding (if groundwater table is near surface), wells (half of VA) -0.6% of water on Earth, 22% of all fresh water |
| Groundwater movement/flow | -saturated, porous, media -tortous pathway -relatively narrow pore spaces -highly frictional – frictional resistance to floor -depends on pressure head ~ from high head to low head -groundwater moves at a very slow velocity, so • H = 0 + Z + P/pg |
| Straw in a beaker part 1 | -Ztop is the head at the top and bottom of the straw -Hb = hb + zb • where z is pushing up • and h is pushing down -pressure pushes water to same elevation as surface in straw |
| Straw in a beaker part 2 | if I know elevation at the top of the straw (Ztop), & depth to water, I can figure out elevation of the water surface if all the pressure is elevation head |
| Straw in a beaker part 3 | total head at the point where the straw is open to the water (Hb in this case) -if I have Zb and Hb I can determine hb • pressure head and Ztop (elevation at surface) minus length of straw/well |
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