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A&P I Chap. 3
Energy: States of Energy
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Energy | The capacity to do work |
| Two states of energy | Potential and kinetic |
| Potential energy | Stored energy (think of battery) |
| Kinetic | Energy of motion |
| True or False - Energy can be converted from one state to another | True |
| Potential energy & plasma membrane | Concentration gradient, sodium ion concentration is higher outside of cell - potential energy |
| Electric energy | Movement of charged particles. ex: electricity or the movement of ions across the plasma membrane of a neuron. |
| Mechanical energy | Exhibited by objects in motion. ex: muscle contraction for walking |
| Sound energy | Molecule compression caused by a vibrating object. ex: sound waves causing vibration of the eardrum in the ear |
| Radiant energy | Energy of electromagnetic waves. Higher frequency with greater radiant energy. Forms with frequency higher than visible light able to penetrated the body and mutate DNA. Light detected by retinal cells. |
| Human eye can detect visible light...... | within a small range of 400nm to 740nm |
| Heat energy | Kinetic energy of random motion. Usually not available to do work. Measured as the temperature of a substance. |
| First law of thermodynamics | Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change form |
| Second law of thermodynamics | When energy is transformed, some energy is lost to heat. The amount of usable energy decreases. ex: moving around on a cold day to warm up |
| Kinetic Energy & plasma membrane | Sodium ion exhibit kinetic energy as it moves down the concentration gradient. |
| Reactant | The substances present prior to start of a chemical reaction. Always written on left side of equation. |
| Product | The substances formed by the reactants. Always written on the right side of the equation. |
| Catabolism | Collective term for decomposition reactions |
| Anabolism | Collective term for all synthesis reactions |
| Metabolism | Collective term for all chemical reactions in the body |
| Synthesis | When two or more substances come together to form a new substance. |
| Decomposition | When a substance breaks down into more than one substance. |
| Exchange | When two or more substances swap elements. |
| Irreversible reaction | Net loss of reactants and a net gain in products over time |
| Reversible reaction | No net change in concentration of reactants and products. Reactants become products, products become reactants. |
| Exergonic | Energy is released |
| Endergonic | Energy is required |
| Enzymes | Catalysts that accelerate normal chemical activities. Decrease the activation energy, only facilitate reactions that would already occur, increase the rate of product info. |
| Chemical reactions | Categorized as - uncatalyzed and catalyzed reactions |
| Uncatalyzed | No enzyme is present |
| Catalyzed | Enzyme is present |
| Function of enzyme | Exergonic reaction, substrate higher potential energy than total potential energy of products, activation energy required to initiate the reaction, more glucose and fructose formed in a period of time with enzyme |
| Enzyme's active site | Specific in shape, permits only a single substrate to bind, helps catalyze only one specific reaction. Results in an enzyme-substrate complex |
| Decomposition reaction - lactose digested to glucose and galactose. Step 1 | The substrate binds to the enzyme (lactase), forming an enzyme-substrate complex. |
| Decomposition reaction - Step 2 | The enzyme changes shape, resulting in an induced fit between substrate and enzyme. |
| Decomposition reaction - Step 3 | The bond is broken between glucose and galactose. |
| Decomposition reaction - Step 4 | Glucose and galactose are released and the enzyme is free to bind to other substrates. |
| Synthesis reaction - Glucose into a glycogen molecule Step 1 | The glucose substrate binds to the enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. |
| Synthesis reaction - Step 2 | The enzyme changes shape, resulting in an induced fit between substrate and enzyme. |
| Synthesis reaction - Step 3 | Bonds are broken and a new bond is formed between the new glucose molecule and the growing glycogen molecule. |
| Synthesis reaction - Step 4 | Glycogen is released and the enzyme is free to bind with other substrates. |
| Enzyme - Cofactors | Molecules or ions required for normal enzyme function, associate with a particular enzyme, nonprotein organic or inorganic structure, organic enzyme is called coenzyme ex: vitamins, modified nucleotides, inorganic cofactors attach to enzyme, ex: zinc ion |
| Enzyme name | Usually based on the name of the substrate or product, suffix -ase, ex: pyruvate dehydrogenase--transferring hydrogen from pyruvate, DNA polymerase--helping form DNA, lactase--digesting lactose |
| Substrate concentration | Increasing the concentration of the substrate increases the rate of reaction (up to the point of enzyme saturation) |
| Temperature effects on substrate | 3-D shape of protein is more rigid at cooler temperatures, optimum temperature for maximum protein flexibility of intact human enzyme, enzyme denatures as weak intramolecular interactions are broken at higher temperatures. |
| pH effects on substrate | Acidic - denatures, Basic - denatures, Neutral - remains intact (6-8 pH for human enzymes) |
| Competitive inhibitors | Resembles substrate and can bind in active site of enzyme, compete for occupation of active site, interferes with active site of enzyme so substrate cannot bind. |
| Noncompetitive inhibitors | Do not resemble substrate, bind to a site other than active site (allosteric site), induce conformational change to enzyme and active site, not influenced by concentration of substrate |
| Metabolic pathway | Pathways are regulated by negative feedback by a product. |
| Multi-enzyme complex (physically linked enzymes) | The product of one enzyme becomes the substrate of a different enzyme within the same complex. The products of each enzyme are unlikely to diffuse away to participate in other chemical reactions |
| Glucose oxidation | Step by step breakdown of glucose with energy release, CO2 and H2O are formed. |
| Glucose | Is an energy rich molecule with many C-C, C-H, C-O bonds |
| Glycolysis | Anaerobic process in cytosol, glucose broken down into two pyruvate molecules, net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules, pathway contains 10 enzymes |
| Metabolism - Stage 1 | Digestion in GI tract lumen to absorbable forms. Transport via blood to tissue cells. |
| Metabolism - Stage 2 | Anabolism and catabolism of nutrients to form intermediates within tissue cells. |
| Metabolism - Stage 3 | Oxidative breakdown of products of stage 2 in mitochondria of tissue cells. CO2 is released and H atoms removed are ultimately delivered to molecular oxygen, forming H2O. Some energy released is used to form ATP. |
| Cellular respiration - Electron transport system | Involves the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2, energy released used to make ATP. Involves structures located in the inner membrane of mitochondria, electron carriers, H pumps, ATP synthetase enzymes |
| Oxidative phosphorylation | Involves oxygen as final acceptor, ATP formed from phosphorylation, distinguish from substrate-level phosphorylation, forms ATP from energy directly released from a substrate, occurs during glycolysis and citric acid cycle |
| Electron transport system - Step 1 | Electrons are transferred from NADH and FADH2 through a series of electron carriers within the cristae. O2 is the final electron acceptor. |
| Electron transport system - Step 2 | Energy of electrons "falling" is used to move H up its concentration gradient from the matrix to the outer compartment. |
| Electron transport system - Step 3 | ATP synthetase harnesses the kinetic energy of the H "falling" down its concentration gradient to bond ADP and Pi to form ATP. |
| Regeneration of NAD+ | Hydrogen transferred from NADH to pyruvate, pyruvate converted to lactate (lactic acid), Enables glycolysis to continue |
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daydreamer67
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