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Respiratory system
Anatomy & Physiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| aerobic cellular respiration requires... | an uninterrupted supply of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide waste |
| respiration | the collective process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide are continuously exchanged between the atmosphere and the body's cells |
| multiple systems that work together in a coordinated process to produce respiration | respiratory system, skeletal and muscular system, nervous system, and cardiovascular system |
| how respiratory system produces respiration | promotes gas exchange between the lungs and atmosphere |
| how skeletal and muscular system produces respiration | facilitates movement of air in and out of lungs |
| how nervous system produces respiration | coordinates contraction of muscles for breathing |
| how cardiovascular system produces respiration | transports oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs and cells |
| general functions of the respiratory system | air passageway, site for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, odor detection, sound production, and varying levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood |
| respiratory system as an air passageway | air is moved from the atmosphere to the alveoli as we breathe in and air is moved from the lungs to the atmosphere as we breathe out |
| respiratory system as a site for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange | oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli |
| respiratory system and odor detection | olfactory receptors in the superior nasal cavity serve to identify scents |
| respiratory system and sound production | air moves across the vocal cords of the larynx (voice box), the vocal cords of the larynx vibrate, producing sound, and sounds resonate in the upper respiratory structures |
| respiratory system and O2 and CO2 blood levels | rate and depth of breathing influence blood levels of oxygen and of carbon dioxide |
| structural organization | upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract |
| upper respiratory tract | larynx and above |
| lower respiratory tract | trachea and below |
| functional organization | the conducting zone transports air and the respiratory zone participates in gas exchange |
| conducting zone | nose to terminal bronchioles |
| respiratory zone | respiratory bronchioles to alveoli |
| nose | main conducting passageway for inhaled air |
| nasal cavity | oblong shaped internal space, formed by the nose anteriorly, and formed by the skull superiorly and posteriorly |
| purpose of the nasal cavity | warm, cleanse, and humidify the air that is breathed in |
| how nasal cavity accomplishes its purpose | air is warmed by extensive blood vessels, mucus traps dust, microbes, and foreign material, cilia sweep mucous toward the pharynx to be swallowed, moist environment humidifies, and air turbulence created by the conchae enhances all three processes |
| pharynx | commonly called the throat, it is a funnel-shaped passageway posterior to the nasal cavity, oral cavity and larynx, and the lateral walls are composed of skeletal muscles |
| partitions of the pharynx | nasopharynx, oropharynx, and larygopharynx |
| conducting pathways of the lower respiratory tract | larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles |
| structures involved in gas exchange of the lower respiratory tract | respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli |
| larynx | also called the voice box, continuous with the laryngopharynx superiorly, continuous with the trachea inferiorly, and has several major functions |
| major functions of the larynx | air passageway, prevents ingested materials from entering the respiratory tract, produces sound for speech, assists in increasing pressure in the abdominal cavity, and participates in both a sneeze and cough reflex |
| larynx and producing sound for speech | ligaments (termed vocal cords) vibrate when air passes over them during expiration |
| larynx and assisting in increasing pressure in the abdominal cavity | epiglottis closes over the larynx so that air cannot escape and this action is called the valsalva maneuver (what you do when you go poop) |
| larynx and participation in sneeze/cough reflex | irritants in the nasal cavity can trigger a sneeze and irritants n the trachea and bronchi can trigger a cough |
| larynx anatomy | formed and supported by nine pieces of cartilage (cartilage held in place by ligaments and muscles, and composed of single thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottis cartilages and paired arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform cartilages |
| thyroid cartilage | largest laryngeal cartilage and is the anterior protusion in the laryngeal prominence (aka the Adam's apple) that aids in swallowing (NOTE THIS FUNCTION) |
| epiglottis | spoon- or leaf-shaped, anchored to thyroid cartilage, projects posterosuperiorly into the pharynx, and closes over laryngeal duct inlet during swallowing |
| vocal ligaments | composed primarily of avascular elastic connective tissue, covered with mucosa to form the vocal folds (true vocal cords), and produces sound when air passes between them |
| trachea | flexible, slightly rigid, tubular organ, known as the windpipe, extends inferiorly through the neck, goes from the larynx to the main bronchii, immediately anterior to the esophagus, and posterior to part of the sternum |
| bronchial tree | highly branches system of air conducting passages that originate at the main bronchi and progressively branch into narrower tubes ending in the smallest bronchiole passageways |
| as the tree continues to divide into smaller passageways | it leads to tubes of <1 mm, the bronchioles (some are terminal bronchioles or the last part of the conducting zone and others are respiratory bronchioles or the first part of the respiratory zone) |
| main bronchi of the bronchial tree | supported by incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage (ensures they remain open) and wall support lessening as bronchi divide |
| bronchioles of the bronchial tree | have no cartilage; smaller diameter prevents collapse, have proportionally thicker layer of smooth muscle, and can contract and expand |
| contraction narrows the diameter of the bronchiole which is termed | bronchoconstriction (less air through bronchial tree) |
| expansion increases the diameter of the bronchiole which is termed | bronchodilation (more air through the bronchial tree) |
| respiratory zone | composed of respiratory ducts, alveolar ducts, and alveoli (respiratory bronchioles subdivide to alveolar ducts which lead to alveolar sacs (clusters of alveoli) |
| alveoli | saccular outpouchings that are in great number (300-400 million) in each lung, have openings in their walls (alveolar pores), provide for collateral ventilation, and are surrounded by pulmonary capillaries |
| characteristics of the lungs | house bronchial tree and all respiratory portions of respiratory system, are located within the thoracic cavity on either side of the mediastinum, are protected by the thoracic cage, have conical shape w/ wide concave base and each has an apex (cupula) |
| apex of the lung | superior and posterior to the clavicle |
| Hilum | indented region on lung's mediastinal side |
| location of the base of the lung in the body | rests inferiorly on the muscular diaphragm |
| right lung description | larger and wider lung that is subdivided by two fissures into three lobes |
| two fissures of the right lung | horizontal fissure and the oblique fissure |
| horizontal fissure of the right lung | separates superior (upper) lobe from the middle lobe |
| oblique fissure of the right lung | separates the middle lobe from the inferior (lower) lobe |
| left lung | smaller and narrower of the lungs because of the heart's position, divided by one fissure into two lobes, has indentations to accomodate the heart and aorta (cardiac notch) |
| oblique fissure of the left lung | separates the superior and inferior lobes |
| cardiac notch | a groovelike impression on the left lung that provides space for the aorta of the heart |
| pleura | serous membrane lining outer lung surfaces and adjacent thoracic wall that is composed of simple squamous epithelium |
| visceral pleura | adheres to the lung surface |
| parietal pleura | lines the internal thoracic walls, lateral surface of mediastinum, and superior surface of the diaphragm |
| the fact that each lung is enclosed in a separate visceral pleural membrane... | helps limit the spread of infection |
| pleural cavity | located between visceral and parietal serous membranes and it is considered a potential space when the lungs are inflated (visceral and parietal layers are almost touching at the point) |
| serous fluid produced by serous membranes | covers pleural cavity surface (each cavity possess < 15 mL of fluid that is drained continuously by lymph), lubricates (allowing pleural surfaces to slide by easily) |
| chest wall | anatomically configured to expand outward with the lungs clinging to the chest wall during expansion (due to surface tension of the serous fluid) |
| lungs | have a lot of elastic connective tissue and naturally recoil |
| anatomic arrangement (how lungs remain inflated) | outward pull of chest and inward pull of lungs with consequent "suction", intrapulmonary pressure > intrapleural pressure, and the difference in pressure keeps the lungs inflated (if pressure becomes equal, lungs deflate |
| intrapleural pressure | pressure in the pleural cavity |
| intrapulmonary pressure | pressure inside the lungs |
| respiration | the exchange of respiratory gases between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs and is organized into four continuous simultaneous processes |
| the four continuous simultaneous processes of respiration | pulmonary ventillation, alveolar gas exchange, gas transport, and systemic gas exchange |
| pulmonary ventillation | movement of respiratory gases between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs |
| alveolar gas exchange (external respiration) | exchange of respiratory gases between the alveoli and the blood (capillary beds surrounding it) |
| gas transport | transport of respiratory gases within the blood between the lungs and the systemic cells |
| systemic gas exchange (internal respiration) | exchange of respiratory gases between the blood and the systemic cells (capillary beds have oxygen rich blood and they send it to the body) |
| movements of respiratory gases (1-4) | 1) air containing oxygen is inhaled into the alveoli inspiratory phase of pulmonary ventilation 2) O2 diffused from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries 3) blood from lungs transported to systemic cells 4) O2 diffuses from capillaries to systemic cells |
| alveolar gas exchange (O2) | oxygen diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries |
| systemic gas exchange (O2) | oxygen diffuses from the systemic capillaries into systemic cells |
| movement of respiratory gases (5-8) | 5) CO2 diffuses from systemic cells into systemic capillaries 6) CO2 is transported within the blood from systemic cells to the lung 7) CO2 diffuses from pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli 8) air containing CO2 is exhaled from alveoli to atmosphere |
| systemic gas exchange (CO2) | CO2 diffuses from systemic cells into systemic capillaries |
| alveolar gas exchange (CO2) | CO2 diffuses from pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli |
| expiratory phase of pulmonary ventillation | air containing CO2 is exhaled from the alveoli to the atmosphere |
| pulmonary ventillation known as breathing | movement of air between atmosphere and alveoli consists of two cyclic phases |
| two cyclic phases of breathing | inhalation and exhalation |
| inhalation | inspiration bringing air into the lungs |
| exhalation | expiration that forces air out of the lungs |
| quiet breathing | rhythmic breathing that occurs at rest |
| forced breathing | vigorous breathing that accompanies exercise |
| process of pulmonary ventillation | automomic nuclei in brainstem stimulate skeletal muscles involved in breathing & muscles cyclically contract & relax (causes thoracic volume cyclic changes - result in a changing pressure gradient b/w lungs & atmosphere), air moves down pressure gradient |
| air moves down the pressure gradient | enters lung during inspiration and exits lungs during expiration |
| mechanics of breathing involves several integrated aspects | specific actions of skeletal muscles of breathing, dimensional changes within the thoracic cavity, pressure changes resulting from volume changes, pressure gradients, and volumes and pressures associated with breathing |
| skeletal muscles of breathing are classified into three categories | muscle of quiet breathing, muscles of forced inspiration, and muscles of forced expiration |
| muscles of quiet breathing | diaphragm and external intercostals |
| muscles of forced inspiration | include sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, pectoralis minor, serratus posterior superior, and erector spinae |
| muscles of quiet breathing are involved in... | normal rhythmic breathing at rest and alternately contract and relax |
| muscles of forced inspiration are involved in... | deep inspiration during heavy exercise & all but the erector spinae are located in more superior location to thoracic cavity so they can move the rib cage superiorly, laterally, & anteriorly and result in greater increase in volume of the thoracic cavity |
| erector spinae muscles involved in forced inspiration are located along the length of the vertebral column so they... | aid in lifting the rib cage |
| muscles of forced expiration | internal intercostals, abdominal muscles, transverse thoracis, and serratus posterior inferior |
| muscles of forced expiration are involved in... | contracting during a hard expiration (i.e. coughing), either pulling the rib cage inferiorly, medially, and posteriorly or compressing the abdominal contents |
| accessory muscles of breathing | refers to the muscles of forced expiration when they are paired with the muscles of forced inspiration |
| volume changes in the thoracic cavity occurs in three dimension | vertically, laterally, and anterior-posteriorly |
| vertical dimension changes result from movement of diaphragm | diaphragm forming rounded "floor" of the thoracic cavity and is dome-shaped when relaxed, but the central portion flattens and moves inferiorly when contracted (presses against abdominal viscera and decreases vertical dimension of the thoracic cavity) |
| only small movements of the diaphragm are required for breathing, but... | greater changes occur during forced expiration |
| lateral dimension changes | rib cage elevation widening thoracic cavity, rib cage depression narrowing thoracic cavity, and changes in this occur due to all the muscles of breathing except the diaphragm |
| anterior-posterior dimension changes | inferior portion of sternum moves anteriorly and then posteriorly, and occurs due to all muscles of breathing except the diaphragm |
| air pressure gradient | when force per unit area is greater in one place than in another |
| if a gradient exists between two interconnected regions | air moves from region of higher pressure to region of lower pressure and continued until pressure become equal |
| atmosphere | air in environment surrounding us |
| atmospheric pressure | pressure gases in the air exert on the environment, changes with altitude, and increased altitude = "thinner air" = lower pressure (at sea level, value is 760 mm Hg = 14.7 lbs per square inch = 1 atm.) |
| volumes and pressures associated with breathing | atmosphere, atmospheric pressure, alveolar pressure, intrapulmonary pressure, intrapleural pressure, and volume change in thoracic cavity |
| alveolar volume | collective volume of alveoli within the lungs |
| intrapulmonary pressure | fluctuates with breathing, may be higher, lower, or equal to atmospheric pressure, is equal to atmospheric pressure at end of inspiration and expiration |
| intrapleural pressure | fluctuates with breathing, is always lower than the intrapulmonary pressure to keep lungs inflated, and prior to inspiration, is about 4 mm Hg lower than intrapulmonary pressure (756 mm Hg) |
| volume change in thoracic cavity | establishes pressure gradient between atmosphere and thoracic cavity |
| gradient determines direction of air flow | increase in the thoracic cavity during inspiration (decrease in pressure in thoracic cavity and air moves into the lungs), decrease in thoracic cavity during expiration (increase in pressure in thoracic cavity and air moves out of lungs) |
| increased resistance requires more forceful inspirations | muscles of inspiration are working harder and can cause four-fold to six-fold increase in energy expenditure (individuals with these conditions can become exhausted from breathing alone) |
| pulmonary ventillation | process of moving air into and out of the lungs/ amount of air moved between atmosphere and alveoli in one minute |
| tidal volume | amount of air per breath |
| respiration rate | number of breaths per minute |
| pulmonary ventillation (6 L/minute) | tidal volume x respiration rate (500 mL x 12 breaths/min) |
| anatomical dead space | space in respiratory tract in the conducting zone that has no exchange of respiratory gases and is about 150 mL |
| alveolar ventillation | amount of air reaching the alveoli per minute and deep breathing maximizes this |
| equation for alveolar ventillation | (tidal volume - anatomic dead space) x respiration rate [(500 mL - 150 mL) x 12 = 4.2 L/min.] |
| physiologic dead space | normal anatomic dead space + any loss of alveoli, some respiratory disorders decrease the number of alveoli participating in gas exchange (due to damage to alveoli or changes in respiratory membrane (i.e. pneumonia) |
| spirometer | measures volume of air that enters and leaves the lungs and can be used as a diagnostic and assessment tool of respiratory health, volumes vary throughout a 24-hour period and during different stages of life |
| four volumes measured by spirometry | tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), residual volume |
| tidal volume | amount of air inhaled or exhaled during quiet breathing |
| inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) | amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled beyond the tidal volume, measure of lung compliance |
| expiratory reserve volume (ERV) | amount that can be forcibly exhaled beyond tidal volume, measure of lung and chest wall elasticity |
| residual volume | amount of air left in the lungs after the most forceful expiration |
| four respiratory capacities calculated from respiratory volumes | inspiratory capacity (IC), functional residual capacity (FRC), vital capacity, and total lung capacity (TLC) |
| inspiratory capacity (IC) | tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume |
| functional residual capacity (FRC) | expiratory reserve volume + residual volume, defined as the volume left in the lungs after a quiet expiration |
| vital capacity | tidal volume + inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes, defined as the total amount of air a person can exchange through forced breathing |
| total lung capacity (TLC) | sum of all volumes, including residual volume, and defined as the maximum volume of air that the lungs can hold |
| forced expiratory volume (FEV) | percentage of vital capacity that can be expelled in a specific period of time (inspire as much air as possible and expel from the lungs as quickly as possible) |
| FEV1 | percentage expelled in one second (75-85% in a healthy person, but decreases in individuals with decreased ability to expire (i.e. emphysema |
| maximum voluntary ventillation (MVV) | greatest amount of air that can be taken into, & then expelled from the lungs in 1 minutes (breathing as quickly and as deeply) and can be as high as high as 30 L/min (compared to 6 L/min at rest) & inds. w/ respiratory disorder have lower than normal MVV |
Created by:
Nicolekr
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