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Min Final
3rd exam onward
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What elements compose >80% of the earth's crust? | Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum (then Fe, Ca Na, Mg, K) |
| Which of the most abundant elements takes up the most space in the crust? | Oxygen |
| What two elements compose the structural unit of silicate minerals? | Si, O. SiO4 |
| What is the most abundant mineral in the crust? | Plagioclase feldspar |
| What are the minerals in Goldschmidt's classification? | Chalcophile, Atmophile, Siderophile, Lithophile |
| Describe Goldschmidt's materials> | • Was from early 20th, based on things that he saw in nature. Looked at meteorites and products of iron smelting. Found silicate material, metallic material, sulfide materials. In smelting, iron separated from the rest. |
| Chalcophile | Sulfur-loving. |
| Atmophile | Atmosphere-loving. |
| Siderophile | Includes heavier metals such as iron and is mainly found in the earth's core |
| Lithophile | Includes Silicates & Oxides and are found mainly in the earth's crust |
| How are minerals classified? | By chemical structure and ionic grouping |
| What are the major mineral groups? | Native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, silicates |
| What are the native element minerals? | Diamond and Graphite |
| What are the sulfide minerals? | Pyrite, Chalcopyrite, Galena, Sphalerite. (S^6+O4)^2- |
| What are the oxide minerals? | Hematite, Magnetite, Corrundum, Ilmenite, Rutile |
| What are the halide minerals? | Halite, Fluorite |
| What are the carbonate minerals? | Calcite, Aragonite, Siderite, Dolomite |
| What are the sulfate minerals? | Gypsum, Anhydride, Barite. (S^2-) |
| What are the neosilicate minerals? | Olivine (Forsterite (Mg), Fayalite (Fe)), Kyanite, Andalusite, Sillimanite, Garnet (Pyrope (Mg), Alamandine (Fe)) |
| What are the single chain silicate minerals? | Diopside, Enstatite |
| What are the double chain minerals? | Tremolite |
| What are the sheet silicate minerals? | Biotite, Muscovite |
| What are the framework silicate minerals in the silica group? | Quartz, Coesite, Stishovite |
| What are the framework silicate minerals in the feldspar group? | Albite, Anorthite, Sanidine, Orthoclase, Microcline |
| What is a dispersed element? | Galium. • One that doesn’t form its own mineral and is a trace element. Because they’re the same size and charge as common elements. |
| What are the different types of bonds and how does that affect the material's hardness? | Van der Waals - weak, Hydrogen - weak, Metallic - variable, Covalent - very hard, Ionic - medium to hard |
| What is coordination/a coordination number? | coordination - number of nearest neighbors (ions in contact) to any ion. The coordination number around a cation is a function of the relative sizes of anion and cation |
| What determines cation size? | Increase in atomic # increases radius, drop in row = added shell = increased radius, increase in charge decreases radius, increasing coordination increases radius, increasing temp increases radius |
| What is Pauling's rule about sharing faces/edges? | Bond strengths are lessened when polyhedra share edges or faces |
| What is hexagonal closest packing? | Layers of closest packed spheres are arranged in an ABABAB pattern. 3rd layer directly over 1st layer. Arrangement of equal size spheres. Corrundum has this. |
| What is cubic closest packing? | Layers of closest packed spheres are arranged in an ABCABCABC pattern. 4th layer directly over 1st layer. Magnetite has this. |
| What are the two types of interstitial sites in cubic closest and how do they differ? | tetrahedral (like a 3D triangle) or octahedral (like a double pyramid) sites where cations can sit |
| Ionic bonding | One element steals an electron from another (electron transfer). Medium to hard bonds, high symmetry, fully to partially transparent, highly water soluble |
| Covalent bonding | two elements share electrons. Hard bonds. High melting temperature, low symmetry. |
| Isodesmic compounds | same bond strength throughout |
| Anisodesmic compounds | have different bond strengths for each bond |
| How are characteristic x-rays produced? | One electron is knocked out of its energy level and the others drop down from the higher levels to replace it, which gives of a characteristic wave length |
| The bragg equation is 2dsin0 = n y. Where the 0 is a thing and the y is an upside down y. What do all of the things mean? | 2 = fuckin 2 d = distance between planes of atoms sin = fuckin sine 0 = angle n = given y = wavelength |
| How does substitution work? | • size differences between ions o <15%: common or “easy” o 15-30%: limited to rare o >30%: almost never • charges on ions • simple (ion charges the same): Mg-Fe, Sr-Ca, Rb-K Mg_2SiO_4 (Fe, Mn, Ni) |
| How does coupled substitution work? | • coupled (ion charges not the same): NaAlSi_3O_8 (Ca Al_2) CaMgSi_2O_6 (Na Al) (Al Al) • Vacancy (an empty site in one mineral may be filled, perhaps partially, in another. Also requires coupled sub) []Ca_2Mg_5Si_8O_22(OH)_2 (Ng Na) (K Al) |
| How does a displacive transformation work? | It requires low energy and shifts/kinks bonds instead of breaking them. ex: high quartz, low quartz |
| How does a reconstructive transformation work? | It requires high energy (high temp) and breaks bonds so that the transformation is more permanent. Example = graphite and diamond |
| What are the 4 elements of external symmetry of crystals? | Mirror planes, rotation axes, rotoinversion axes, center of symmetry |
| Describe glide planes | indicated by a lowercase letter which denotes which axis it is on, glide planes are a pattern of translation and mirroring |
| Screw axes | indicated by a numerical subscript which denotes the rotation axis, screw axes combine rotation along the a axis with vertical movement along the c axis |
| Tetragonal crystal system | all angles are equal & mutually perpendicular The a and b axes are equal in length by the c axis is a different length |
| bar # | # fold rotoinversion axis |
| # | # fold rotation axis |
| m | mirror plane |
| #/m | # fold rotation axis perpendicular to mirror plane |
| Primitive space group | nodes on all corners |
| What is a framework silicate? | tectosilicates, linked throughout the whole thing |
| Describe the structure of quartz | low - 6fold screw axis, truly hexagonal. high - 3fold screw axis, trigonal |
| Describe the structure of fedspars | 4-membered ring of tetrahedra, on the right pointing away, on the left pointing toward |
| Describe the structure of clinopyroxenes | Single chain structure. Tetrahedra on a glide plane. Only have M1s and M2s. More limited subs. Monoclinic. |
| Describe the structure of orthopyroxenes | Same as cpx but a lot less calcium |
| What are the different types of sites? | [A][M4][M1-3][T] |
| What is a 1:1 sheet silicate? | Tetrahedral sheet, octahedral sheet. Held together by VDW bonding. (TO TO) Serpentine is example |
| What is a 2:1 sheet silicate? | They are structured to have 2 tetrahedral layers and 1 octahedral layer (TOT TOT) |
| What is a 2:1:1 sheet silicate | Tetrahedral sheet, octahedral sheet, tetrahedral sheet, with O in interlayer site (TOT O TOT). Example is chlorite group minerals |
| What is the structure of talc? | Nothing in interstitial site. 2:1 sheet silicate. |
| What is the structure of biotite? | Has a K+ cation in interstitial site. 2:1 sheet silicate. |
| What is the internal structure of the smectite group and why does it matter? | 2:1, shrink swell clays. Used in cat litter. Have slight negative charge, attract H2O molecules. |
| How do you distinguish different types of clay minerals from one another? | xray defractometer |
| What are the types of clay minerals? | Kaolin, Smectite (on Mars!), Illite (clay micas), Chlorite |
| What silicate mineral group does crocidolite belong to? | Inosilicate |
| What silicate mineral group does chrysotile belong to? | Phyllosilicate |
| What factors determine density? | atomic weight |
| Clays & quartz | Shale |
| Mostly quartz, some microcline and muscovite | rhyolite |
| Plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine | basalt |
| Olivine, pyroxene | peridotite |
| Quartz, kspar, plag, biotite | Granite |
| Chlorite, epidote, actinolite | greenstone |
| The ratio of dolostone to limestone is _______ in Precambrian carbonate rocks relative to younger rocks | higher |
| Chert is a microcrystaline variety of _____ | SiO2 |
| Cristobalite is generally only found in ________ rocks | volcanic |
| Rocks in the _______ facies formed at higher pressure than those in the greenschist facies | ecologite |
| The most abundant mineral in the mantle is ________ | Olivine |
| _______ is the most common type of sedimentary rock | shale |
| Calcite and _________ are isostructural | aragonite |
| _______ is the most common clay mineral | Kaolinite? |
| _______________ is a triple chain silicate | Jimthompsonite |
| Mesosilicate (or orthosilicate) | Island silicate with tetrahedra isolated from each other |
| What is garnet's structure? | [A]3[M4]2Si3O12. 2+ cations in A site (Ca, Mg, Fe2+, Mn2+). 3+ cations in M4 site (Al, Fe3+, Cr3+). Isometric. |
| What is the garnet structure's coordination? | [8][6][4][?] |
| What are the 2 garnet polymorph groups? | Pyralspite (different A group), Ugrandite (different M4 group) |
| Which are the aluminosilicates? | Andalusite, sillimanite, Kyanite |
| Kyanite | • triclinic • Al Al Si O5 • [6][6][?][?] coordination used in high temp ceramics like spark plugs |
| Andalusite | • Orthrhombic • Al Al Si O5 • [6][5][?][?] coordination |
| Sillimanite | • Orthrhobmic • Al Al Si O5 • [6][4][?][?] coordination |
| A meteor impact would cause a transformation of the aluminosilicate _______ into ________ | silimanite, kyanite |
| Staurolite | -Fe2Al9O6(SiO4)4(OH)2 -aluminum rich -only metamorphosed shales -commonly twinned -monoclinic (pseudo-orthrhombic) |
| Amphiboles in metamorphic rocks | actinolite (greenstones), hornblende (amphibolites), tremolite (some marbles and calc-silicates), glaucophane (blueschists) |
| Which are the metamorphic facies? | Blueschist (glauchophane is diagnostic), Greenschist (actinolite is diagnostic), Amphibolite (hornblende is diagnostic) |
| Epidote group | -Si2O7 components -bowtie silicates -also isolated silica tetrahedra -Ca2Al3Si3O12(OH) – Clinozoisite (monoclinic) -Sub Fe3+ for Al3 and that’s true epidote (also monoclinic) -can be in high pressure granites -lots in unikite |
| Tanzanite | gem blue zoisite |
| Ore | a mineral deposit in sufficient concentration to make it profitable to mine (geology + economics + politics) |
| Factors affecting ore profitability | o Expense of mining (personnel, equipment, etc) o “Purity” or costs associated with processing the ore o Transportation o Market value (price stability) o Reclamation (environmental or human rights issues) |
| Most abundant ores (Table 8.2 in book) | -Al 8% -Fe 5% -Mn 0.09% -Cr 0.01% |
| Bingham Copper Mine | world’s biggest open pit mine. biggest ever landslide in US history, but it was in the mine |
| What processes concentrate ores? | Magmatic, hydrothermal, sedimentary, weathering |
| Magmatic concentration of ores | • crystal setting • disseminated (throughout the rock, like diamonds) • late stage (like in pegmatites, elements form because they don’t really fit anywhere else) • Skarns (intruding into a sedimentary/carbonate package, fluids expelled from lava) |
| Hydrothermal concentration of ores | • things like porphyry copper deposits (porphyritic igneous rocks form under volcanoes) |
| Sedimentary concentration of ores | • evaporites (like halite or gypsum) • placer deposits (concentrates things based on density and size, like when you’re panning for gold) |
| Weathering concentration of ores | • bauxite deposits (forms where there is slow but intense chemical weathering, like in tropical environments. aluminum hydroxides in bauxite. Takes a lot of energy, gets shipped to Canada) |
| Oxide structures | X2O(rare), XO(rare), X2O3(corrundum, hematite, ilmenite), XO2 (rutile), XY2O4 (spinel). Common to have iron and iron titanium oxides together |
| X2O3 structure | like corundum (hematite is isostructural, so is ilmenite but with Fe and Ti alternating levels) • tetrahedral sites are empty • aluminum in octahedral sites o every 3rd site is empty |
| XO2 structure | • like rutile (TiO2) (cassiterite, pyrolusite isostructural) o titanium in octahedral coordination • or like Fluorite (Uraninite) o Fluorines in simple closest packing o Calciums sit in cubic site |
| XY2O4 structure | like spinel (MgAl2O4) (Hercynite, Chromite, Magnetite, Gahnite) • oxygen in cubic closest packing • 1/8 tet sites filled • ½ oct sites filled |
| Specular hematite | like the ring. Botryodial (bulbous) habit |
| Hydroxide varieties | aluminum and iron |
| aluminum hydroxides | (in some soils, but mainly in boxites) • Al(OH)3 – gibbsite • AlO(OH) – boehmite / diaspora |
| iron hydroxides | • FeO(OH) – goethite / lepidochrocite • FeO * OH * nH2O – limonite (a mixture) • Can be an indicator of an ore deposit |
| Ferruginous Quartzites | -black smokers on the ocean floor -can have shiny hematite -sediments, exhalites enriches in silica and iron |
| Voisey’s Bay Nickel deposit | -one of the biggest nickel deposits ever found |
| Which are the sulfide ores? | -PbS (lead) -ZnS (zinc) -HgS (cinnabar) -FeS2 -CuFeS2 (copper) -Cu5FeS4 – bornite -Sb2S3 – stibnite (Sb2) -MoS2 – molybdenite (molybdenum) -FeAsS – arsenopyrite -AsS – realgar -As2S3 – orpiment |
| Hydrothermal processes which form sulfide ores | -water. -heat. Magma at depth or burying. -source of metals -migration pathways -precipitation sites for minerals |
| Water processes for sulfide ores | meteoric = rain and snow that percolates down, gets heated up, and comes back to the surface. Water might also come from heating metamorphic rocks. Or from water trapped in pore spaces |
| NaCl structure | -chlorines in cubic closest packing -sodiums in octahedral sites (all) -PbS has the same structure -FeS2 has similar structure • isometric • marcasite is orthorhombic & isostructural |
| ZnS structure | -isometric -sulfurs in cubic closest packing -zincs in tetrahedral sites (1/2) -Chalcopyrite is similar • coppers & irons occupy Zn sites (alternating positions) • tetragonal |
| NiAs structure | -As in hexagonal closest packing -octahedral sites occupied by Ni -octahedra share faces -pyrrhotite (Fe_1-xS) • 3Fe^2+ = 2Fe^3+ + vacant site |
| “yellow-boy” | -coal mining waste dumps have lots of pyrite in them, turned water yellow |
| What is the most common titanium ore? | ilmenite |
| What is the most abundant element in the whole earth? | Iron (then O, Si, Mg) |
| What's metallic bonding? | Electrons aren't linked (free to move), good conductors |
| What is Van der Waals bonding? | at any given moment there may be a positive charge on one side and a negative charge on the other. |
| What is Hydrogen bonding? | Fairly weak, has to do with polarity |
| Radius ratio | • The coordination number around a cation is a function of the relative sizes of anion and cation o Relative size is expressed as a radius ratio (radius of cation/radius of anion) |
| Requirements for minerals to be isostructural | Similar relative sizes of anions and cations. Similar formulas (proportions) |
| Solid solution | a mineral structure in which specific atomic sites are occupied in variable proportions by 2 or more different chemical elements (or groups) |
| Ways crystals form | melts (magma), aqueous solutions (evaporates, geodes, hydrothermal fluids), vapor, solid state (metamorphism) |
| #m | # fold rotation with parallel mirror |
| Triclinic | plag |
| Orthorhombic | andalusite |
| Tetragonal | chalcopyrite |
| Hexagonal | Beryl, High quartz, apatite |
| Isometric | Pyrite, Galena |
| Rhombohedral | Calcite, Low quartz, corundum, cinnabar |
| Unit cell | the smallest unit of a structure that can be indefinitely repeated to generate the whole structure |
| Mesodesmic bonding | -“bridging oxygen” because it builds a bridge between the two tetrahedral -or it could be on the end, not bonded to another silica, it’s a “non-bridging” oxygen |
| Neosilicates (orthosilicates) | isolated Si tetrahedra (island) (olivine) |
| Sorosilicates | Si2O7 groups (bow ties) (epidote) |
| Cyclosilicates | rings of tetrahedra (beryl) |
| Inosilicates | chains of tetrahedra (pyroxenes single, amphiboles double) |
| Phyllosilicates | sheets of tetrahedra (clay minerals, talc) |
| Tectosilicates | framework of tetrahedra (quartz, feldspar) |
| Olivine structure | island silicate (tetrahedra not linked). M1 and M2, distinct octahedral sites. Simpler than pyroxenes. Zoning is uncommon. |
| Spinel structure | cubic closest packing. 1/8 tetrahedral sites filled, 1/2 octahedral sites filled |
| _____ is the most common rock type in the earth's crust | igneous |
| _____ is the most common type of sedimentary rock | shale |
| What are the most important minerals in rocks? | -quartz -plagioclase -alkali feldspar -mica -clay -olivine -pyroxene -amphibole -garnet -calcite |
| Goldich’s weathering series | olivine -> pyroxene -> amphibole -> biotite -> potassium feldspar -> muscovite -> quartz |
| _______ is the most common mineral in the earth's crust | plagioclase |
| Why is limestone important? | -they preserve fossils -they can serve as a pH buffer -makes interesting landscapes (natural bridge, caverns) -can be a construction problem. Sinkholes -important aquifer -perhaps holding petroleum -construction material |
| Barite structure | orthorhombic, found in warm solutions, coordination is 12?? |
| Gypsum structure | monoclinic, sheets of SO4 tetrahedra, Ca is 8 coordinated |
| ______ is the most common sulfate | gypsum |
| Apatite | hexagonal, strong bond between phosphorous and oxygen |
| Metamorphism | -changes just in temp – contact metamorphism -changes just in pressure – burying -changes in both – subduction -initial equilibrium state –(metamorphism)→ new equilibrium state -diagenesis –(150-200)→metamorphism—(650+)→melting |
| isograd | a line drawn on a map marking the first appearance of an index |
| metamorphic facies | • a range of P-T conditions over which a particular common mineral assemblage or range of mineral assemblages is stable • for rocks metamorphosed under the same physical conditions, different mineral assemblages represent different bulk compositions & vv |
| High vs low minerals on Bowen's reaction series | • So like olivine, opx, cpx, Ca are high. Amphibole, Na, biotite, quartz are low |
| Difference between cpx and opx? | • Cpx is Monoclinic, opx is orthrhobmic. Opx doesn’t have calcium? |
| Useful info from test 3 correction paragraph | • Gabbros don’t have kspars, sanidine is in volcanic rocks only not in plutons. Plutons are intrusive igneous rocks. Sanidine is only found in quick-cooling volcanic rocks, so exolution lamelle wouldn’t form. |
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