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Ch. 2
A&P
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Organic compound are usually held together by __________ bonds | covalent |
| carbon has ___ electrons in its outermost (valence) shell | 4 |
| What are some elements that bond with carbon that make an organic compound? (5) | hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus |
| the chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule is called the ____ _______ | carbon skeleton |
| many of the carbons are bonded to hydrogen atoms yielding a ___________ | hydrocarbon |
| also attached to the carbon skeleton are distinctive _______ ________, other atoms or molecules bound to the hydrocarbon skeleton. | Functional groups |
| each type of functional group has a specific arrangement of atoms the confers characteristics _______ ______ on the organic molecule attached to it | chemical properties |
| small organic molecules can combine into very large molecules that are called ___________ | macromolecules |
| macromolecules are usually ______ | polymers |
| a _______ is a large molecule formed by the covalent bond of many identical or similar small building-block molecules called monomers | polymer |
| _______ are similar small building-block molecules that make up polymers | monomers |
| the reaction that joins 2 monomers is a ______ _______; during this a hydrogen atom is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl group is removed from the other to form a molecule of water | dehydration synthesis |
| 4 examples of macromolecules | carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids |
| molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structures are called ______ | isomers |
| ____ contain an -OH group, which is polar and hydrophilic due to its electronegative O atom. Molecules with many -OH dissolve easily in water | alcohols |
| ____ have an -SH group, which is polar and hydrophilic due to its electronegative S atom. | thiols |
| Certain ____ _____ contain -SH groups, which help stabilized the shape of proteins | amino acids |
| ______ contain a carbonyl group within the carbon skeleton. | Ketones |
| the _____ group is polar and hydrophilic due to its electronegative O atom | carbonyl |
| ______ have a carbonyl group at the end of the carbon skeleton | aldehydes |
| _____ _____ contain a carboxyl group at the end of the carbon skeleton | carboxylic acids |
| all ___ ____ have a -COOH group at one end | amino acids |
| the negatively charged form of ____ predominates the pH of body cells and is hydrophilic | carboxyl |
| _____ predominate in dietary fats and oils and also occur in our body as triglycerides | ester |
| _____ is an ester of salicylic acid, a pain-relieving molecule found in the bark of the willow tree | aspirin |
| ____ contain a phosphate group which is very hydrophilic due to the dual negative charges. An ex is ___ ___, which transfers chemical energy btwn organic molecules during chemical reactions | phosphate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
| ____ have an -NH2 group which can act as a base and pick up hydrogen ion, giving the amino group a positive charge | amines |
| at the pH of body fluids, most amino groups have a charge of ___ | 1+ |
| all amino acids have a ____ group at one end | amino |
| _____ include sugars, glycogen, starches and cellulose | carbohydrates |
| carbohydrates represent only_-_% of your body mass | 2-3 |
| in humans and animals, ________ function mainly as a source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reactions | carbohydrates |
| Only a few carbohydrates are used for building structural units. Ex is ___, a type of sugar that is a building block for DNA the molecule that carries inherited genetic info | deoxyribose |
| ___, _____, and ____ are the elements found in carbohydrates | carbon hydrogen oxygen |
| the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms is usually _:_ rate | 2:1 |
| carbohydrates generally contain one ____ for each carbon atom | water |
| the three major groups of carbohydrates, based on their size are | monosaccharides disaccharides polysaccharides |
| monosaccharides and disaccharides are known as ____ ____ | simple sugars |
| the monomers of carbohydrates, _______ contain from 3 to 7 carbon atoms | monosaccharides |
| Monosaccharides and disaccharides are designed by names ending in _____ with a prefix that indicates the # of carbon atoms | -ose (ex. trioses 3 carbons) |
| a _____ is a molecule formed from the combination of 2 monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis | disaccharide |
| ____ have the same molecular formula, but the relative positions of the oxygen and carbon atoms are different, causing the compounds to have different chemical properties | isomers |
| disaccharide can also be split into smaller, simper molecules by ______ | hydrolysis |
| some individuals use ___ ____ to limit their sugar consumption for medical reasons, while others do so to avoid calories that might result in weight gain | artificial sweeteners (do not cause tooth decay; reduce the incidence of dental cavities) |
| ______ molecules contain tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis reactions. They usually are insoluble in water and so not taste sweet. | polysaccharides |
| the main polysaccharides in the human body is _____, which is made entirely of glucose monomers linked to one another in branching chains | glycogen |
| ______ are polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants. They are found in foods such as pasta and potatoes and are the major carbohydrate in the diet. | starches |
| polysaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides through ______ reactions | hydrolysis |
| _____ is a polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot be digested by humans but does provide bulk to help eliminate feces | cellulose |
| 2nd important group of organic compounds; makes up 18-25% of body mass; contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but do not have a ratio of 2:1 of hydrogen to oxygen | lipids |
| the proportion of electronegative oxygen atoms in lipids is usually ___ than in carbohydrates, so there are fewer polar covalent bonds | smaller |
| most lipids are insoluble in polar solvents such as water; they are ______ | hydrophobic (only the smallest lipids, some fatty acids, can dissolve in watery blood plasma |
| to become more soluble in blood plasma, other lipid molecules join with hydrophilic protein molecules; this lipid/protein complex is _____ that are soluble bc the proteins are on the outside and the lipids are on the inside | lipoproteins |
| what are examples of lipids? | fatty acids, triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus), steroids (lipids that contain rings of carbon), eicosanoids (20-carbon lipids), fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A,D,E,&K) and lipoproteins and others |
| among the simplest lipids are the ___ ___, which are used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids or can be catabolized to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Also, they can be saturated or unsaturated. | fatty acid |
| what do fatty acids consists of? (2 things) | carboxyl group and hydrocarbon chain |
| A ____ _____ _____ contains only single covalent bonds btwn the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain. Bc they lack double bonds, each carbon atom of the hydrocarbon chain is ______ with hydrogen atoms. | saturated fatty acids saturated |
| ____ _____ ____ contains one or more double covalent bonds btwn the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain; not completely saturated with hydrogen atoms; has a kink(bend) at the site of the double bond | unsaturated fatty acid |
| if the fatty acid has just one double bond in the hydrocarbon chain, it is ______ and it has just one kink | monounsaturated |
| if a fatty acid has more than one double bond in the hydrocarbon chain, it is _____ and it contains more than one kink | polyunsaturated |
| the most plentiful lipids in your body and in your diet are the ______, also know as _____. It consists of 2 types of building blocks, a single glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules. | triglycerides tri-acylglycerols |
| A 3-carbon _____ molecule forms the backbone of a triglyceride. | glycerol |
| Three fatty acids are attached by ____ _____ reactions, one to each carbon on the glycerol backbone. The chemical bond formed where each water molecule is removed is an _____ _____. | dehydration synthesis ester linkage |
| ______ breaks down a single molecule of a triglyceride into 3 fatty acids and glycerol | hydrolysis |
| triglycerides can be either a solid, as a ___, or a liquid, as an ___, at room temp | fat oil |
| what are the 3 functions of triglycerides? | protection insulation energy storage |
| a ___ is a triglyceride that is a solid at room temp and are mostly saturated | fat |
| a fat that mainly consists of saturated fatty acids is called a ____ ___ | saturated fat |
| examples of saturated fats? | meat nonskim dairy products plant product (cocoa butter, palm oil, and coconut oil) |
| diets that contain large amounts of saturated fats are associated with disorders such as _____ and ____. | heart disease colorectal cancer |
| an ____ is a triglyceride that is a liquid at room temp and are mostly unsaturated | oil |
| the ___ at the sites of the double bonds prevent the unsaturated fatty acids from closely packing together and solidifying | kink |
| the fatty acids of oil can either be ____ or ____. | monounsaturated or polyunsaturated |
| ____ ___ contain triglycerides that mostly consist of monounsaturated fatty acids | monounsaturated fats |
| examples of monounsaturated fats | olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, canola oil, most nuts and avocados |
| ____ _____ contain triglycerides that mostly consist of polyunsaturated fatty acids | polyunsaturated fats |
| examples of polyunsaturated fats | corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil and fatty fish(salmon, tuna, and mackerel) |
| both monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are believed to decrease the rick of ___ ____ | heart disease |
| triglycerides are the body's most highly concentrated form of ___ energy | chemical |
| our capacity to store triglycerides in ____ ____ is unlimited for all practical purposed | adipose (fat) |
| a group of fatty acids called ___ ____ ____ is essential to human health; the cannot be made by the body and must be obtained from foods or supplements | essential fatty acids (EFAs) |
| what are the 3 important EFAs? | omega-3 fatty acids omega-6 fatty acids cis-fatty acids |
| _ and _ are polyunsaturated fatty acids that are believed to promote health;protect against heart disease and stroke by lowering total cholesterol, raising HDL, high density lipoproteins (good cholesterol(GC) and lowering LDL(BC) low density lipoproteins | omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids |
| What do omega-3 and omega-6 also help with? (4) | decrease bone loss by increasing calcium utilization by the body; reduce symptoms of arthritis due to inflammation; promote wound healing; improve certain skin disorders; and improve mental functions |
| primary sources of omega-3? (5) | flaxseed, fatty fish, oils that have large amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, fish oils and walnuts |
| primary sources of omega-6? (5) | most processed foods, eggs, baked goods, oils with large amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acid, meats |
| the hydrogen atoms on either side of the double bond in oleic acid are on the same side of the unsaturated fatty acid, this is called a ____ ____ | cis-fatty acid |
| ___ ___ are naturally beneficial unsaturated fatty acids that are used by the body to produce hormonelike regulators and cell membranes | cis-fatty acid |
| when cis-fatty acids are heated, pressurized, and combined with a catalyst in a process called hydrogenation, they are changed to unhealthy _ _; in this acid, hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond of an unsaturated fatty acid | trans-fatty acids |
| what are some examples of hydrogenated or trans-fatty acids? (4) | commercially baked goods, salty snack foods, some margarines, and fried foods |
| Trans-fatty acids increase total cholesterol, a decrease in HDL, an increase in LDL, and an increase in triglycerides. Bc of this what can it increase the causes of? (similar to saturated fats) | increase risk in heart disease and other cardiovascular diseases |
| ___ have a glycerol backbone and two fatty acid chains attached to the first two carbons; in the third position there is also a phosphate group | phospholipids |
| the phosphate group (PO4^3-) links a small charged group that usually contains nitrogen to the backbone; this portion is said to be the ____ of the molecule and is ____ and due to this it can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules | head polar |
| the two fatty acids make up the ___ of the molecule and are ___ and due to this can interact only with other lipids | tail nonpolar |
| molecules that have both polar and nonpolar parts are called _____ | amphipathic |
| ____ _____ line up tail-to-tail in a double row to make up much of the membrane that surrounds each cell | amphipathic phospholipids |
| what is the major lipid component of cell membranes? | phospholipids |
| ____ have four rings of carbon atoms | steroids |
| ___ ____ synthesize other steroids from cholesterol, which has a large nonpolar region consisting of the four rings and a hydrocarbon tail | body cells |
| in the body, the commonly encountered steroids are known as ___ bc they also have at least one hydroxyl (alcohol -OH) group | sterols |
| the polar hydroxyl group make sterols weakly ______ | amphipathic |
| what are some examples of steroids? (6) | cholesterol, estrogen and testosterone, cortisol, bile salts, vitamin D, adrenocortical hormones |
| What is needed for cell membrane structure; minor component of all animal cell membranes; precursor of bile salts, vitamin D, and steroid hormones? | cholesterol |
| required for regulating sexual functions; stimulate reproductive functions and sexual characteristics? | estrogen and testosterone |
| is necessary for maintaining normal blood sugar? | cortisol |
| are needed for lipid digestion and absorption? | bile salts |
| related to bone growth; helps regulate calcium level in body; needed for bone growth and repair? | vitamine D |
| help regulate metabolism, resistance to stress, and salt and water balance? | adrenocortical hormones |
| _____ are lipids derived from a 20-carbon fatty acid called arachidonic acid | eicosanoids |
| what are the two principal subclasses of eicosanoids? | prostaglandins and leukotrienes |
| _____ have a variety of functions; they modify responses to hormones, contribute to the inflammatory response, prevent stomach ulcers, dilate (enlarge) airways to lungs, regulate body temp, and influence formation of blood clots (only a few) | Prostaglandins |
| _____ participate in allergic and inflammatory responses | leukotrienes |
| other lipids also include fat-souble vitamins such as ____; vitamins ___, ____, and ___; and _____ | beta-carotenes vitamins D, E, K lipoproteins |
| needed for synthesis of vitamin A; function as antioxidants | carotenes |
| promotes wound healing, prevents tissue scarring, contributes to normal structure and function of nervous system, and functions as antioxidant | vitamin E |
| required for synthesis of blood-clotting proteins | vitamin K |
| transport lipids in blood, carry triglycerides and cholesterol to tissues, and remove excess cholesterol from blood | lipoproteins |
| _ are large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; may also contain sulfur; much more complex in structure then carbohydrates and lipids; have many roles in the body and are largely responsible for the structure of body tissues | proteins |
| proteins make up ___% of body mass | 12-18% |
| ____ are proteins that speed up most biochemical reactions | enzymes |
| _____ are proteins that defend against invading microbes | antibodies |
| what are the 6 types of proteins? | structural regulatory contractile immunological transport catalytic |
| a type of protein that forms structural framework of various parts of the body? | structural |
| a type of protein that functions as hormones that regulate various physiological processed; control growth and development; as neurotransmitters, mediate responses to nervous system | regulatory |
| a type of protein that allows shortening of muscle cells, which produces movement? | contractile |
| a type of protein that aid responses that protect the body against foreign substances and invading pathogens? | immunological |
| a type of protein that carry vital substances throughout the body? | transport |
| a type of protein that acts as enzymes that regulate biochemical reactions? | catalytic |
| the monomers of proteins are __ ___. | amino acids |
| each of the 20 different amino acids had a ____ atom and 3 important functional groups attached to a central carbon atom: (1) ____, (2) ____, and (3) _____ | hydrogen an amino group (-NH2) an acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) a side chain (R group) |
| the covalent bond joining each pair of amino acids is a ____; it always forms btwn the carbon of the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the nitrogen of the amino group of another | peptide bond |
| as the peptide bond is formed, a molecule of water is removed, making this a ____ reaction | dehydration synthesis |
| breaking a peptide bond, as occurs during digestion of dietary proteins, is a _____ reaction (adding a water molecule) | hydrolysis |
| when 2 amino acids combine a ___ results; when 3 amino acids combine a ___ results; when a formation of a chainlike amino acids of 4-9 occurs a ___ results and the formation of a chainlike amino acids of 10 or more a ____ occurs | dipeptide tripeptide peptide polypeptide |
| proteins exhibit ___ levels of structural organization | 4 |
| a protein's ___ ___ is the unique sequence of amino acids that are linked by covalent peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain; is genetically determined and any changes in a protein's amino acid sequence can have serious consequences for body cells | primary structure |
| in ___ a nonpolar amino acid (valine) replaces a polar amino acid (glutamate) through two mutations in the oxygen-carry protein hemoglobin; this change diminished hemoglobin's water solubility | sickle-cell disease |
| what is the result of sickle-cell disease? | the altered hemoglobin tends to form crystals inside red blood cells, producing deformed, sickle-shaped cells that cannot properly squeeze through narrow blood vessels |
| the __ ___ of a protein is the repeated twisting or folding of neighboring amino acids in the polypeptide chain | secondary structures |
| two common secondary structures are __ __ and __ __ __. | alpha helixes (clockwise spirals) beta pleated sheets |
| the secondary structure of a protein is stabilized by __ bonds, which form at regular intervals along the polypeptide backbone | hydrogen |
| the ___ ___ refers to the three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide chain | tertiary structure |
| the strongest but least common bond in a tertiary structure is a S-S covalent bond called __ __, form btwn the sulfhydryl groups of two monomers of the amino acid cysteine | disulfide bridges |
| often helper molecules known as _____ aid the folding process of proteins | chaperones |
| in those proteins that contain more than one polypeptide chain, the arrangement of the individual polypeptide chains relative to one another is the __ ___ | quaternary structure |
| a protein's unique shape permits it to interact with other molecules to carry out a specific ___ | functions |
| on the basis of overall shape, proteins are classified as ___ or ___ | fibrous globular |
| __ __ are insoluble in water and their polypeptide chains form long strands that are parallel to each other | fibrous proteins |
| fibrous proteins have many __ functions | structural |
| example of fibrous proteins (7) | collagen elastin keratin dystrophin fibrin actin and myosin |
| strengthens bones, ligaments, and tendons | collagen |
| provides stretch in skin, blood vessels, and lung tissue | elastin |
| forms structure of hair and nails and waterproofs the skin | keratin |
| reinforces parts of muscle cells | dystrophin |
| forms blood clots | fibrin |
| are involved in contraction of muscle cells, division in all cells, and transport of substances within cells | actin and myosin |
| __ __ are more or less soluble in water and their polypeptide chains are spherical (globular) in shape | globular proteins |
| globular proteins have __ functions | metabolic |
| examples of globular proteins (8) | enzymes antibodies and complement proteins hemoglobin lipoproteins albumins membrane proteins hormones (insulin) |
| functions as a catalysts | enzymes |
| help protect us against diseases | antibodies and complement proteins |
| transports oxygen | hemoglobin |
| transports lipids and cholesterol | lipoproteins |
| help regulate blood pH | albumins |
| transport substances into and out of cells | membrane proteins |
| help regulate blood sugar level | hormones (insulin) |
| if a protein encounters an altered environment, it may unravel and lose its characteristic shape, this is called __; these proteins are no longer functional | denaturation |
| most catalysts are protein molecules called __ | enzymes |
| some enzymes consist of 2 parts - a protein portion called __ and a nonprotein portion called __ | apoenzyme cofactor |
| what are the 2 things that a cofactor can be? | metal ion an organic compound called coenzyme |
| __ often are derived from vitamins | coenzyme |
| the names of enzymes usually end in the suffix ___ | -ase |
| what are 3 important properties of enzymes | highly specific very efficient (reactions proceed fast) subject to a variety of cellular controls |
| each particular enzyme binds only to specific __ - the reactant molecules on which the enzymes acts | substrates |
| the part of the enzymes that catalyzes the reaction, called the __ __ is thought to fit the substrate like a key fits in a lick | active site |
| in other cases the active site changes its shape to fit snugly around the substrate once the substrate enters the active site this is called an __ __ | induced fit |
| enzyme's rate of synthesis and their concentration at any given time are under the control of a cell's __ | genes |
| enzymes lower the __ __ of a chemical reaction by decreasing the "randomness of the collisions btwn molecules | activation energy |
| enzymes also help bring the substrates together in the proper __ so that the reaction can occur | orientation |
| what is it called when a substrate and an enzyme come together? | enzyme-substrate complex |
| a __ consists of 2 monosaccharides that have combined by dehydration synthesis | disaccharides |
| __ is made up of glucose monomers and is the stored form of carbohydrate in the human body | glycogen |
| one glycerol and three fatty acids are the building blocks of __ | triglycerides |
| __ are amphipathic, having both a polar and nonpolar regions | phospholipids |
| __, which is synthesized in the liver, is the starting material for synthesis of other steroids in the body | cholesterol |
| amino acids are the monomers used to build __ | proteins |
| an __ speeds up a chemical reaction without being altered or consumed | enzyme |
| __ __ so named bc they were first discovered in the nuclei of cells, are huge organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus | nucleic acids |
| what are the two types of nucleic acids? | deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
| __ __ forms the inherited genetic material inside each human cell | deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) |
| each __ is a segment of a DNA molecule; our __ determine the traits we inherit, and by controlling protein synthesis they regulate most of the activities that take place in body cells throughout our lives | genes |
| __ __ relays instructions from the genes to guide each cell's synthesis of proteins from amino acids | ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
| a nucleic acid is a chain of repeating monomers called __ | nucleotides |
| what are the three main parts of the DNA? | nitrogenous base pentose sugar (deoxyribose group) phosphate group |
| DNA contains 4 different nitrogenous bases, which contain atoms of __, __, __ and __ | C H O N |
| what are the nitrogen bases in DNA? | adenine (A) thymine (T) cytosine (C) guanine (G) |
| adenine and guanine are larger double-ring cases called __; thymine and cytosine are bases called __ | purines pyrimidines |
| a nucleotide containing thymine is called a ___ ___, one containing adenine is called __ ___ | thymine nucleotide adenine nucleotide |
| a five-carbon sugar called __ attached to each base in DNA | deoxyribose |
| ___ ___ alternate with pentose sugars to form the "backbone" of a DNA strand; the bases project inward from the backbone chain | phosphate group |
| Waston-Crick __ __ model, DNA resembles a spiral ladder | double helix |
| 2 strands of alternating __ __ and __ __ form the uprights of the ladder in DNA | phosphate group deoxyribose sugars |
| paired bases, held together by ___ bonds, form rungs in DNA | hydrogen |
| adenine always pair with __ | thymine |
| cytosine always pairs with __ | guaine |
| any change that occurs in the base sequence of a DNA strand is called a __ | mutation |
| what can mutations in DNA cause (3) | death of cell cancer produce genetic defects in future generations |
| __ is a single-stranded | RNA |
| the sugar in the RNA nucleotide is the pentose __ | ribose |
| RNA contains the pyrimidine base __ instead of thymine | uracil (U) |
| cells contain 3 different types of RNA: __, __, and __; each has a specific role to perform in carrying out the instruction coded in DNA | messenger RNA ribosomal RNA transfer RNA |
| a technique called __ __ is used in research and in courts of law to ascertain whether a person's DNA matches the DNA obtained from samples or pieces of legal evidence such as blood stains or hairs | DNA fingerprinting |
| __ is the "energy currency" of living systems; transfers the energy liberated in exergonic catabolic reactions to power cellular activities that require energy (endergonic reaction) | adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
| ATP consists of __ __ attached to __, a unit composed of adenine and five-carbon sugar ribose | three phosphate groups adenosine |
| the enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP is called __ | ATPase |
| removal the third phosphate group produces a molecule called __ _ | adenosine diphosphate (ADP) |
| as the supply of ATP at any given time is limited, a mechanism exists to replenish it: the enzyme __ __ catalyzed the addition of phosphate group to ADP | ATP synthase |
| the energy needed to attached a phosphate group to ADP is supplied mainly by the catabolism of glucose in a process called __ __ | cellular respiration |
| cellular respiration has 2 pases __ and __ | anaerobic and aerobic |
| in a series of reactions that do not require oxygen, glucose is partially broken down by a series of catabolic reactions into pyruvic acid. Each glucose molecule that is converted into a pyruvic acid molecule yields 2 molecules of ATP. What phase is this? | anaerobic phase |
| In the presence of oxygen, glucose is completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water. These reactions generate heat and 36 to 38 ATP molecules. Which phase is this? | aerobic phase |
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