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A&P II Ch.1&2
Physiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the functions of erythrocytes? | transport oxygen n carbon dioxide |
| What is erythropoietin? | hormone released n produced from the kidney in response to low oxygen; stimulates the synthesis of erythrocytes(kidney Release hormone to increase red blood cell production) |
| Define four types of cells/tissues and their characteristics: | neurons, muscle cells, epithelial cells, connective tissue cells |
| neurons | are specialized to transmit information in the form of electrical signals; typically posses a number of branches that function either or receive signals from or transmit signals to other cells |
| Muscle fibers= muscle cells | are generally elongated in shape and are specialized to contract, thereby generating mechanical force and movement; voluntary: skeletal muscle and involuntary: cardiac and smooth muscles |
| epithelia | consist of a continuous, sheet like layer of cells in combination with a basement membrane.Line external body surfaces,Line hollow body tubes and organs,Function as a barrier,Function as a transport membrane |
| Connective tissue cells | Is the most diverse; including blood cells, bone cells, fat cells, and many other kinds of cells;Provide physical support for other structures such as tendons, ligaments, bones; |
| what is the function of the endocrine system? | provide communication b/w cells of the body through the release of hormones into the bloodstream |
| what is the function of the nervous system? | provide commuicaion b/w cells of the body through electrical signals n the release of neurotransmitters into small gaps b/w certain cells |
| what is the function of the musculoskeletal system? | support the body; allow voluntary movement of the body; allow facial expressions |
| what is the function of the cardiovascular system? | transport molecules throughout the body in the bloodstream |
| what is the function of the respiratory system? | bring oxygen into the body n eliminate carbon dioxide from the body |
| what is the function of the urinary system? | filter the blood to regulate acidity, blood volume, n ion concentrations; eliminate wastes |
| what is the function of the gastrointestinal system? | break down food n absorb it into the body |
| what is the function of the reproductive system? | generate offspring |
| what is the function of the immune system? | defend the body against pathogens n abnormal cells |
| what is the function of the integumentary system? | protects the body from the external environment |
| What is the main difference between exocrine and endocrine glands? | DUCTS. exocrine:secrete a product into a duct leading to the external environment. Endocrine glands:secrete hormones, chemicals that communicate a message to cells of the body, into the bloodstream |
| What is the function of elastin? | gives the tissue elasticity |
| What is the function of collagen? | gives the tissue tensile strength & flexibility |
| What is an internal environment? | Immediate environment of most cells, =Extracellular fluid which includes tissue fluid and plasma,Plasma is fluid around blood cells,Tissue fluid (also known as interstitial fluid) is fluid around all other cells |
| Across gastrointestinal tract: Absorption | the water, inorganic salts, and nutrients from digested food are transported from the lumen of GI tract to the bloodstream |
| Across & In the kidneys: Filtration | fluid from the bloodstream first enters tubules non-selectively |
| Across & In the kidneys: Reabsorption | then as this fluid travels along the length of the tubules, needed materials(including water,inorganic salts, nutrients) are selectively transported back into the bloodstream |
| Across & In the kidneys: Secretion | unneeded materials are selectively transported from the bloodstream into the tubules. (In GI tract: to aid in the digestion of food, the stomach uses materials from the blood to produce acids n proteins that are then transported into the lumen |
| In the kidneys:Excretion | urine is eliminated from the body |
| Where is most of our total body water? | intracellular fluid (ICF) |
| What is ICF? What is its characteristics (protein and ions)? | Water present in fluid located inside cells, About 2/3 of TBW,Contains many proteins and rich in K+ n low in Na+ |
| What is ECF? | Fluid outside cells but within body,Is the “internal environment”,1/3 of TBW, Na+ high, K+ low |
| What are the two portions of ECF? What are its characteristics of each portion (protein and ions)? | subdivisions: Plasma: the liquid component of blood, relatively rich in proteins; Interstitial Fluid: containing few proteins(0,1 or 2molecules or no proteins) and rich in Na+, present outside the blood and bathes most of the cells in the body |
| What is homeostasis? | The maintenance of constant conditions in the internal environment means that the composition, temperature, and volume of ECF do not change significantly under normal conditions. |
| How is homeostasis primarily regulated? | negative feedback |
| Define regulated variable and give examples | is not free to vary but is instead regulated to stay within relatively narrow limits; body temperature,negative feedback. ex.blood volume,body temperature, composition,blood glucose,blood pH,plasma concentrations of potassium, sodium, calcium |
| Define negative feedback and give examples | if a regulated variable increases, the system responds by making it decrease and vice versa. ex.blood glucose, blood pressure |
| what are the components of the negative feedback? | sensors, integrating center, effectors; and set point, error signal |
| sensors= receptors | sensors which detect stimuli, include thermoreceptors,chemoreceptors, n baroreceptors |
| integrating center | which receives signals (input) from the sensors, compares the regulated variable to the set point, and orchestrates the appropriate response. mainly in the brain.ex.hypothalamus->sends signals to effectors |
| effectors | responsible for body responses; include •Muscles (smooth, striated, and cardiac) •Glands |
| set point | expected value of regulated variable. Examples Core body temperature = 37º C Blood glucose (sugar) = 100 mg/dL Blood pH = 7.4 |
| error signal | Any difference between the actual value and the set point |
| Define positive feedback and give examples. | the response of the system goes in the same direction as the change that sets it in motion, a few examples in the body system.ex:estrogen,oxytocin(stimulates uterine contractions during child birth n milk let down),blood clotting |
| monosaccharides,give examples | Simple sugars, a single unit, C6H12O6 (hydroxyl grps make carbohydrates polar) Examples: glucose, fructose, and galactose |
| disaccharides,give examples | Formed by the covalent bonding of two monosaccharides. ex.Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (galactose + glucose), maltose (2 glucoses):ex.starch. |
| polysaccharides, give examples | Formed by the covalent bonding of several monosaccharides. ex. Glycogen: a polymer of glucose subunits and found in animal cells. Starch:: found in plants. Cellulose: found in plants, humans are unable to digest and absorb it. |
| What compose triglycerides? | glycerol + 3 fatty acids; glycerol=3-carbon alcohol, fatty acid=long carbon acid chain w/ a carboxyl group (-COOH),fatty acid chains make triglycerides hydrophobic |
| What are saturated fatty acids? | contain carbons linked only by single bonds |
| What are unsaturated fatty acids? | contain one or more pairs of carbon linked by double bonds. |
| What are polyunsaturated fatty acids? | contain one or more pairs of carbon linked by more than one double bond |
| What are the differences between nonpolar and polar molecules? | nonpolar=hydrophobic, polar=hydrophilic, differ in water solubility, uneven distributed electrons=polar |
| What compose phospholipids? | Contains one glycerol as backbone.Two fatty acid as tails, which are nonpolar ,hydrophobic.A hydrophilic (polar)head, a phosphate-containing group.Are Amphipathic: in an aqueous environment, polar regions face the water, and the nonpolar regions face each |
| What are the functions of phospholipids? | amphipathic: a molecule that contains both polar n nonpolar regions.Phospholipid bilayers n micelles |
| What is amphiphathic property of a compound? | polar regions face the water, and the nonpolar regions face each tails away from water. hydrophilic (polar) head a phosphate-containing grp |
| what are steroids? | most common steroid is cholesterol,which is an important component of plasma membrane, n the precursor to all other steroids, such as testosterone,estradiol,n cortisol. A 4 fused carbon ring is the structure of steroids.all steroids fxn are hormones |
| what are the basic structures of an amino acid? | building blocks of proteins,20 different kinds of amino acids. a central carbon is bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, n an R or residual group |
| how does each amino acid differ from others? | each amino acid differs from others in the characteristic of R group |
| 4 levels of protein structure? | primary,secondary,tertiary,quaternary |
| primary protein structure? | sequence of amino acids |
| secondary protein structure? | hydrogen bonding b/w amino hydrogen of one amino acid n carboxyl oxygen of another. common structures: alpha-helixes, beta-pleated sheets |
| tertiary protein structure? | formation of bends n loops in polypeptide chain due to interactions b/w R groups |
| quaternary protein structure? | formation of proteins with more than one polypeptide chain. ex.insulin, hemoglobin |
| what are the components of a nucleotide? | phosphate group(s), 5-carbon carbohydrate: ribose,deoxyribose, base-containing carbon-nitrogen ring: pyrimidines: cytosine(C),thymine(T), uracil(U),purines:adenine(A),guanine(G) |
| what are the differences b/w DNA n RNA? | DNA=stores genetic code,always in nucleus,2 strands of nucleotides=double helix,AGCT; RNA=needed for expression of genetic code,in both a cell's nucleus n its cytoplasm,a single strand of nucleotides w/ a 3'end n a 5'end,carbohydrate is ribose,bases:AGCU |
| Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA)? | in a cell's nucleus, store the genetic information. consists of two stands of nucleotides coiled together into a double helix. the carbohydrate is deoxyribose. the bases are A,G, C, n T. |
| Ribonucleic acid (RNA)? | in both a cell's nucleus n its cytoplasm. a single strand of nucleotides w/ a 3' end n a 5' end. the bases are A,G, C, n U |
| What is law of complementary base pairing? | whenever two strands of nucleic acids are held together by hydrogen bonds, G in one stand is always paired w/ C in the opposite strand, n A w/ T in DNA (or w/ U in RNA) |
| plasma membrane structure? | lipid bilayer w/ scattered proteins n cholesterol molecules |
| plasma membrane function? | maintains boundary of cell n integrity of cell structure; embedded proteins serve multiple functions |
| nucleus structure? | surrounded by double-layered nuclear envelope |
| nucleus function? | houses the DNA, which dictates cellular function n protein synthesis |
| nucleolus structure? | dark oval structure inside the nucleus |
| nucleolus function? | synthesis of ribosomal RNA |
| cytosol structure? | gel-like fluid |
| cytosol function? | cell metabolism, storage |
| membranous organelles: Rough endoplasmic reticulum structure? | continuous w/ the nuclear envelope; flattened sacs dotted w/ ribosomes |
| membranous organelles: Rough endoplasmic reticulum function? | protein synthesis n post-translational processing |
| membranous organelles: smooth endoplasmic reticulum structure? | continuous w/ rough endoplasmic reticulum; tubular structure w/o ribosomes |
| membranous organelles: smooth endoplasmic reticulum function? | lipid synthesis n post-translational processing of proteins; transport of molecules from endoplasmic reticulum to golgi apparatus; calcium storage |
| membranous organelles: golgi apparatus structure? | series of flattened sacs near the endoplasmic reticulum |
| membranous organelles: golgi apparatus function? | post-translational processing; packaging n sorting of proteins |
| membranous organelles: mitochondria structure? | oval-shaped, w/ an outer membrane n an inner membrane w/ folds called cristae that project into the matrix |
| membranous organelles: mitochondria function? | ATP synthesis |
| membranous organelles: lysosomes structure? | granular, saclike; scattered throughout the cytoplasm |
| membranous organelles: lysosomes function? | breakdown of cellular n extracellular debris |
| membranous organelles: peroxisomes structure? | similar in appearance to lysosomes, but smaller |
| membranous organelles: peroxisomes function? | breakdown of toxic substances, including hydogen peroxide |
| nonmembranous organelles: vaults structure? | small, barrel-shaped |
| nonmembranous organelles: vaults function? | unknown; possibly transport of molecules b/w nucleus n cytoplasm |
| nonmembranous organelles: ribosomes structure? | granular organelles composed of proteins n rRNA; located in cytosol or on surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum |
| nonmembranous organelles: ribosomes function? | translation of mRNA to synthesize proteins |
| nonmembranous organelles: centrioles structure? | two cylindrical bundles of protein filaments that are perpendicular to each other |
| nonmembranous organelles: centrioles function? | direction of mitotic spindle development during cell division |
| cytoskeleton structure? | composed of protein filaments, including microfilaments, intermediate filaments, n microtubules |
| cytoskeleton function? | structural support of cell; cell movement n contraction |
| cell-to-cell adhesions: tight junctions? | proteins are called occludins link two adjacent cells together; nearly impermeable adhesions. found in epithelial tissue: organs of the GI tract; tubules in kidneys. |
| cell-to-cell adhesions: desmosomes? | are strong junctions b/w cells in tissue subject to stress, such as heart, uterus, n skin. are filamentous junction |
| cell-to-cell adhesions: gap junctions? | two adjacent cells are connected by membrane protein, connexons. Enable ions n small molecules to move b/w the two cells. provide direct electrical n metabolic coupling, such as in the heart |
| genes? | portions of DNA that code for a particular protein or proteins; only one sense strand contains the actual code |
| triplets? | the three-base sequences that code for an amino acid |
| codons? | transcribed mRNA codons are complementary to the code in DNA triplets |
| what is the initiator codon? what protein does it code for? | AUG, is found in every mRNA, also codes for the methionine |
| what is transcription? | DNA->RNA (mRNA, rRNA, n tRNA) |
| where does transcription occur? | occurs in the nucleus |
| what are the steps of transcription? | first step:the uncoiling of DNA n its separation into two strands. Role of RNA polymerase:1.binds to promoter sequence of DNA,2.DNA uncoils n separates,3.allow free RNA nucleotides to align w/ the DNA template.4.catalyzes formation of bonds b/w nucleotide |
| continued transcription steps? | 5.RNA polymerase moves down DNA, RNA elongates.Post-transcriptional processing:1. removal of introns, sliding together of exons which contains code.2.addition of CAP to 5'end, which is necessary for initiation of translation,3.adding poly A tail to 3'end |
| what is translation? | RNA -> polypeptides requires mRNA,tRNA, rRNA(ribosomes) |
| where does translation occur? | occurs in cytoplasm |
| 1.what are the steps of translation? | initiation of translation: initiation factors bind to the CAP region of a mRNA n to the small ribosomal subunit.it triggers small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA.tRNA w/ methionine(met;initiator tRNA) is loaded into small subunit. |
| 2.continued steps of translation? | large subunit binds such that the first tRNA is located in the P site of the ribosome. initiation factors are released. the first tRNA in the P site, a second tRNA w/ the appropriate anticodon enters the A site.An enzyme, peptidyl transferase, |
| 3.continued steps of translation? | in the ribosome catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond b/w two amino acids.A peptide bond is formed b/w the first amino acid, always methionine, (in the P site) and the second amino acid (in the A site.methionine is then released from tRNA,n the free |
| 4.continued steps of translation? | tRNA leaves the P site. The ribosome moves down the mRNA three bases (one codon), placing the second tRNA in the P site.New tRNA enters to the A side,bringing in the third amino acid.A peptide bond is formed again. |
| 5.continued steps of translation? | The process continues until a termination codon is reached on the mRNA |
| 1.Sequence of Translation | 1.Binding of small subunit to mRNA 2.Binding of initiator tRNA with Met to mRNA 3.Binding of large subunit to mRNA 4.Binding of tRNA with 2nd amino acid to A site 5.Formation of covalent bond(peptide bond) b/w Met and 2nd amino acid |
| 2.Sequence of Translation | 6.tRNA is released from P site 7.Ribosome moves down the mRNA one codon 8. New tRNA with its amino acid binds to A site 9. Continues until a termination codon is reached |
| Destination of Proteins? | •Translation requires ribosomes •Free in cytosol •Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) •Ultimate destination depends on leader sequence |
| leader sequence determines ? | -First, whether a protein will be synthesized in the cytosol or in rough ER. -Second, whether proteins synthesized in cytosol will remain there (no leader sequence)or enter a mitochondrion, a peroxisome or the nucleus. |
| From rough ER: | -Polypeptide moves to the lumen of smooth ER -> transport vesicles ->Golgi apparatus (packaging)->secretory vesicles->secreted from cell, lysosome, or plasma membrane. |
| what does proteins need to go outside cell? | if go outside cell need to be synthesized in Rough ER & leader sequence. no leader sequence then proteins stay inside cell. proteins made by free ribosomes they can't never go outside cell. If go outside cell need leader sequence |
Created by:
nely.nieto
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