Concept Dis. Ch 3 Word Scramble

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Question	Answer
activities of cells controlled by	chromosomes present in nucleus
chromosomes exist in pairs in all	somatic cells
genome is ___ for every cell within an individual	identical
___ chromosome in females will differ randomly from cell to cell	inactive X
types of cells that do not divide	nerve, skeletal, & cardiac
spermatogenesis is ___	continuous
spermatogenesis produces more ___ cells from each precursor	useful
recessive gene can only be expressed through	a heterozygous pairing
HLA haplotypes combine in such a way that ___ are possible for any combination of 2 parents	4 separate pairings
diseases caused by a failure of mitochondrial DNA are	usually transmitted from the mother
Gene therapy typically uses a virus to	introduce desirable genetic material into the patient
practice of inserting genetic material into bacterium/yeast to synthesize desired pharmaceutical products is called	recombinant DNA technology, genetic engineering &/or gene splicing
somatic cells are	cells other than those giving rise to eggs/sperm
one member of each paired chromosome is derived from	the male and female parent, respectively
homologous chromosomes	matched pair of chromosomes, derived from each parent
in humans the normal chromosome component is	22 pairs of autosomes
autosomes	chromosome other than a sex chromosome
sex chromosomes	X & Y chromosomes that determine genetic sex
genes	units of inheritance & segments of DNA chain determining some property of the cell
genes are arranged along the chromosome like	"beads on a string"
sum total of all the genes contained in a cell's chromosomes, & is same for all cells, is	its genome
genes sometimes code for	specific enzymes/other proteins need for cell function
genes are also known to code so that they	can act as regulators controlling activities of neighboring genes
gene product	protein/enzyme specified (coded) by a gene
only a small % of total DNA in genome consists of	genes
it is not yet known the functions of DNA remaining, which are	interspaced between genes
exons	part of chromosome DNA chain coded for specific protein/enzyme
intron	non coding part of chromosomal DNA chain
when makes gene product both exons & introns are	transcribed
removed from cytoplasm, when making gene product, before RNA leaves nucleus	introns
only coding sequences that specify ___ to be constructed delivered to ribosomes by mRNA	protein
genes expressed in given cell determine	both its structure & function
Human Genome Project	international collaboration of scientists who mapped nucleotide sequence of entire human genome
genomics	study of gene structure
attempts to correlate structure of genes with effects of genes on individual	genomics
gene expression	process, or regulation of process, by which effects of a gene are manifested
single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)	genetic polymorphism between 2 genomes that based on deletion/insertion/exchange of single nucleotide
SNPs are pronounced as	"snips"
may effect how genes function	single nucleotide variation
sex cells of normal female contain	two X chromosomes
sex cells of normal male contain	1X and 1Y chromosome
female sex cells function as though they contain	genetic material equivalent to 1 X chromosome
genetic activity of both X chromosomes, in a female, is only essential	during first wk of embryonic development
inactivated X chromosome appears as a small mass of chromatin attached to	nuclear membrane of somatic cells
Barr body	inactivate X chromosome applied to nuclear membrane in female
also called sex chromatin body	Barr body
Lyon hypothesis	X-chromosomes in excess of 1 inactivated on random basis at an early stage of embryonic life, leading to mosaicism for X linked genes in female, since paternal X chromosome inactivated in some cells & maternal 1 in remainder
mosaicism	presence in an individual of two or more cell lines that are karyotypically or genotypically distinct and are derived from a single zygote
combination of staining & ultraviolet light makes it possible to determine	X & Y chromosomes composition of intact cells
during process of staining, cells of normal male posses	florescent spot but lack sex chromatin body
during process of staining, cells of normal female posses	sex chromatin body but lack florescent spot
cell division in which chromosomes duplicated in daughter cells are identical to those in parent cell	mitosis
characteristic cell division found in all cells of human body except	in gametes
meiosis	special type cell division occurring in gametes in which # chromosomes reduced by 1/2 in ovum & sperm
gametogenesis	development of mature eggs & sperm from precursor cells
daughter cell	cell resulting from division of single cell (called parent cell)
mitosis is characteristic of all___ however not all mature cells are able to divide	somatic cells
divide as needed to replace lost/damaged cells, or to heal an injury	liver & connective tissues cells
rate of cell division is controlled closely to match body's need and	excess cells are not normally produced
growth factors	soluble growth promoting substance produced by cells attached to receptors on cell membrane of other cells
activates receptors & initiates events leading to growth/division of target cells	growth factors
depending on biochemical signals sent to "machinery" inside cell it will either	grow & divide or growth is inhibited
cells are programmed to undergo ____ number of cell division and then they die	a limited
chromatids	one of two newly formed chromosomes held together by centromere
the process by which chromatids separate	mitosis
each chromosome duplicates itself before cell division, so in a somatic cell just before cell division	there are actually 96 chromosomes
when chromosomes shorten during cell division, term chromatid is applied to	still-joined chromosomes
as soon as chromatids separate they are	called chromosomes again
during prophase each chromosome	thickens & shortens
centrioles migrate to opposite poles of cell forming mitotic spindle during	prophase
mitotic spindle consists of	small fibers radiating in all directions from centrioles
some of the ____ attach to chromatids during prophase	mitotic spindle fibers
the nuclear membrane breaks down towards	the end of prophase
during metaphase the chromosomes	line up in the middle of the cell
during metaphase, chromatids are partially separated but still remained joined	at the centromere
centromere	structure that joins each pair of chromatids formed by chromosome duplication
site where spindle fibers are attached during metaphase	centromere
chromatids constituting each chromosome separate & are pulled to opposite poles of cell by spindle fibers during	anaphase
nuclear membranes of 2 daughter cells reform & cytoplasm divides forming 2 daughter cells during	telophase
synapse	paring of homologous chromosomes in meiosis
crossover	interchanging of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during synapse & meiosis
pairing of homologous chromosomes & interchange of genetic material during prophase is the characteristic feature of	meiosis
in female, 2 X chromosomes synapse in same way	as autosomes
in male, X & Y chromosomes synapse	end to end & do not exchange segments
each daughter cell created during meiosis contains only one member of	each homologous pair of chromosomes & chromosomes are not exact duplicates of parent
during 2nd meiotic division	2 chromatids composing each chromosome separate, 2 daughters formed each containing 1/2 of normal # of chromosomes
1st meiotic division daughter cells receive	23 chromosomes
2nd meiotic division daughter cells receive	23 chromosomes because 2nd division is similar to mitotic division
gonads	testes & ovaries
contain precursor cells/germ cells capable of developing into	mature sperm/ova
mature germ cells are called	gametes
gametogenesis	process by which gametes are formed
spermatogenesis	process by which sperm form
oogenesis	process by which ova form
spermatogonia	precursor cells in testicular tubules
singular term for spermatogonia	spermatogonium
each spermatogonium contains	46 chromosomes
spermatogonia divide by mitosis to form	spermatocytes
spermatocytes contain ___ chromosomes	46
primary spermatocytes divide by	meiosis
spermatids	germ cells in late stage of sperm development just before complete maturation to form mature sperm
after 1st meiotic division two 2ndary spermatocytes divide by 2nd meiotic div. forming	2 spermatids containing 23 chromosomes
entire process of spermatogenesis takes	about 2 months
sperm are produced	continually
precursor cells of ova are called	oogonia
singular term for oogonia is	oogonium
each oogonia contains 46 chromosomes & continually divide in fetal ovaries before birth into	oocytes containing 46 chromosomes
oocytes become surrounded by	granulosa cells
granulosa cells	cells lining ovarian follicle
primary oocytes in follicles begin prophase of 1st meiotic division during fetal life but do not	follow the division through to completion
large number of primary follicles are formed, but many	degenerate during infancy & early childhood
cyclic ovulation begins under influence of	pituitary gonadotrophic hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone & luteinizing hormone
when oocyte is discharged it completes	its first meiotic division, giving rise to 2 daughter cells-unequal in size
after oocyte completes 1st meiotic division one daughter cell	receives 1/2 of chromosomes & almost all of cytoplasm
daughter cell receiving 1/2 of chromosomes & almost all of cytoplasm is called	secondary oocyte
daughter cell receiving 1/2 of chromosomes & almost none of cytoplasm is called	first polar body
first polar body is	discarded
2ndary oocyte begin 2nd meiotic division leading to	formation of mature ovum & 2nd polar body - each containing 23 chromosomes
unless ovum is fertilized	meiotic division is not completed
each precursor cell, in spermatogenesis, produces	four spermatozoa
each precursor cell, in oogenesis, produces	one ovum
oocytes are not produced continually; all oocytes present in ovaries were	formed before birth
oocytes remain in a prolonged	prophase of meiotic division from fetal life until ovulated
presence of abnormalities in chromosome number/structure can be detected by	culturing cells in suitable medium
in order to study chromosomes, lymphocytes can be induced to	undergo mitotic division
chemicals are added to lymphocytes to stop the mitotic division once the chromosomes have become separate & distinct, which causes	accumulation of cells arrested in mitosis in the culture medium
normal dividing cell arrested in mitosis contains	46 chromosomes, each consisting of chromatids joined at their centromeres
size, location of centromere, arms of chromosome, & pattern of light/dark bands along chromosomes are	classifications of chromosomes
karyotype	arrangement of chromosomes from single cell arrangement in pairs in descending order according to size of chromosomes & position of centromeres
locus	position of gene on chromosome
one of several related genes that may occupy same locus on a homologous chromosome	alleles
alleles are always found on the same ___ of the gene	locus
if both alleles are the same an individual is	homozygous
if both alleles are different an individual is	heterozygous
expression of the gene	manifestation of a heritable trait in individual carrying gene(s) that determine it
a recessive gene expresses a trait only when present in	the homozygous state
gene that expresses a trait in either the heterozygous/homozygous state	dominant gene
sex-linked gene	present on X chromosome
term applied to genes located on X chromosome in male	hemizygous
when both alleles of a pair are expressed the alleles are called	codominant
gene imprinting	modification of gene during spermatogenesis or oogenesis
gene imprinting does not change the structure of the gene only	the way the gene is expressed in offspring
mitochondria have small amounts if DNA that contain	some of genes required for synthesis of energy-generating mitochondrial proteins
in mitochondria genes determine	various enzymes & other proteins that produce ATP-generating machinery
mutations to mitochondrial DNA may take place during	duplication/replication
transmission of abnormal mitochondrial DNA is almost always	from the mother, because ovum contains large number of mitochondria
antigens present on cells are determined by	cluster of genes on chromosome 6
major histocompatibility complex MHC	group of genes on chromosome 6 that determine antigens on surface of cells
MHC, in humans these cell surface proteins/antigens were 1st identified on	peripheral blood leukocytes
designations HLA complex & HLA antigen and MHC complex & MHC antigen are	used interchangeably
self-antigens, which set us apart from one another	HLA complex & HLA antigen and MHC complex & MHC antigen
antigenicity of HLA complex/antigens depends on	whether one's own proteins or HLA proteins of another person
self-antigens are unique for person possessing them & are recognized by immune system as	being a part of that person, or not foreign
non-self antigens	foreign proteins
non-self antigens in another person for whom they are antigenic cause	an immune response
cells containing MHC proteins different from transplant recipients caused	rejection of transplanted organ unless immune system is suppressed
there are 1200 different allelic genes that can occupy gene loci with	HLA system
each allele, in a locus, is designated	specific letter to identify locus and number to indicate allele
haplotype	set of HLA genes on one chromosome that is transmitted in a set
each person has two haplotypes, each consisting of	four HLA genes
two haplotypes together determine a total of	eight HLA proteins on the cell
during HLA typing of organ donors, one attempts to match	major antigens of donor as closely as possible, so graft has better chance to survive
MHC Class I proteins are determined by	HLA-A, HLA-B & HLA-C genes
present on all nucleated cells & blood platelets	MHC Class I proteins
platelets	cytoplasmic fragments of large nucleated bone marrow cells
because cells lack nuclei, MHC Class I proteins are not found on	surface of red blood cells
MHC Class II proteins are determined by	HLA-D genes
only found on macrophages (and related cells having same functions) & some types of lymphocytes	MHC Class II proteins
child will only have ___ haplotype in common with each parent	one
from each parent, a children will inherit	one of two possible haplotypes
due to way chromosomes inherited from parent to chil, a child can have	any of four possible combinations of haplotypes
presence of this HLA gene indicates a predisposition to an arthritis of spine & sacroiliac joints	HLA-B27
certain HLA-D types have been associated with	type 1 diabetes & Rheumatoid Arthritis
reason for association of specific disease with certain HLA type in related to	association of HLA gene complex to genes controlling immune system response
those with certain HLA types appear to have genes less capable of	regulating immune responses when subjected to antigenic stimulation
autoimmune diseases	disease associated with formation of cell-mediated/humoral immunity against one's own cells/tissue components
recombinant DNA technology	methods for combining gene from one organism, such as specifying insulin synthesis, with gene's from another organism, such as bacterium
genetic engineering	genes being manipulated; same as recombinant DNA technology
gene splicing	piece of genetic material being cut open & another piece of genetic material being spliced into it
plasmid	small, circular DNA molecule separate from main bacterial chromosome
circular plasmids are opened, during recombinant DNA technology, by means of	enzyme that "cuts" plasmid DNA so desired gene can be inserted btwn cuts end of plasmid
DNA tech has been source of insight into molecular basis of genetic diseases by	increasing understanding of normal gene structure & function
possible to identify mutation of gene in fetal cell DNA obtained from	amniotic fluid
gene therapy	normal gene inserted into defective cell, inserted gene compensates for missing/dysfunctional gene
successful application of gene therapy requires	identify/select correct gene to insert, choose proper cell to receive gene, effective means of inserting gene into cell, ensure inserted gene able function long enough for desired effects
the agent used to introduce gene into selected cell, in gene therapy, is called	vector
vector in gene therapy is usually	a virus, coupling to lipid or other material taken into cell by endocytosis
gene therapy targets	somatic cells
lymphocytic leukemia was a side effect of gene therapy because	gene inserted into lymphocyte-producing stem cell which disrupted function of other cells regulating growth & function
alternate forms of the same gene are called	alleles
being characteristic of germ cells, chromosomes reduced by half, & entails two separate divisions vs.being characteristic of somatic cells, no loss of chromosomes, & only one division	major differences between meiosis vs. mitosis

Created by: lfrancois

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