| Flap 1 |
Flap 2 |
| Respiratory Acidosis is caused by | Over-anesthesia, Lung diseases, Damage to respiratory center |
| Metabolic Acidosis is caused by | Severe diarrhea, Diabetes mellitus, high intesity exercise, kidney failure |
| Effects of Acidosis on Body | Disorientation, Coma, Death, Lower pH limit of 6.8-7.0 |
| Respiratory alkalosis is caused by | Fever, Aspirin poisoning, high altitude |
| Metabolic alkalosis is caused by | Vomiting, excessive sodium bicarbonate ingestion |
| Effects of alkalosis on body | overexcitability of nervous system, tetany, death, upper limit of pH 7.8-8.0 |
| Liters of water in body | 40 liters |
| Percent of body weight from water | 50-60% |
| % of body weight from ICF | 35-40% |
| % of body weight from ECF | 10-20% |
| % of body weight from Interstitial fluid | 10-15% |
| % of body weight from Plasma | 4-5% |
| Causes of Dehydration/Hypovolemia | vomiting, diarrhea, loss of blodd, drainage from burns, lack of ADH due to diabetes insipidus |
| Symptoms of Dehydration/Hypovolemia | Loss of weight, rise in body temperature, increased heart rate and cardiac output, decreased blood pressure, decreased urine |
| Causes of hypervolemia | excessive IV administration, psychotic drinking, renal failure leading to decreased urinary output |
| Symptoms of hypervolemia | decreased body temp., increased blood pressure, edema, weight gain, vomiting, convulsions, coma |
| ADH | antidiuretic hormone regulates water loss |
| What regulates ADH and oxytosin? | Hypothalamus and posterior pituitary |
| Maltose | glucose+glucose |
| Sucrose | glucose+fructose |
| Lactose | glucose+galactose |
| Lipid structure | three fatty acids attached to a glycerol |
| butyric structure | CH3-(CH2)2-COOH |
| palmitic structure | CH3-(CH2)14-COOH |
| Stearic structure | CH3-(CH2)16-COOH |
| Oleic | one double bond |
| Linoleic | two double bonds |
| Linolenic | three double bonds |
| # of cells in body | 75-100 trillion |
| # of types of cells | 200-250 |
| tissue types | epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous |
| normal pH | 7.4 |
| normal glucose | 80-100 mg/100ml |
| Feedback systems' three parts | monitoring receptor, control center, reactor |
| % of plasma membrane from protein | 55% |
| % of plasma membrane from carbohydrate | 2% |
| % of plasma membrane from lipid | 43% |
| space between two walls of nuclear membrane | perinuclear cisterna |
| Rough ER synthesized proteins destination | outside of cell |
| destination of free ribosome synthesized proteins | within cell |
| Vitamin A intoxication | cause lysosomes to rupture, destroying intracellular material |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | Lysosomes release enzymes into joint capsule and digest surrounding tissue |
| Atrophy of the uterus | lysosome digestive activity |
| Erythrocytes | red blood cells |
| Leukocytes | white blood cells |
| Thrombocytes | platelets |
| % of whole blood from plasma | 53-60% |
| % of whole blood from formed elements | 40-47% |
| plasma is made up of | water 90%, proteins 7%, electrolytes urea glucose etc. 3% |
| hematocrit is made up of | erythrocytes 4.5-5.5 million/mm^3, leukocytes 6-10 thousand/mm^3, patelets 150-400 thousand/mm^3 |
| leukocytes are made up of | Neutrophils 60-70%, Eosinophils 2-4%, Basophils .15%, Lymphocytes 20-25%, Monocytes 3-8% |
| serum | plasma minus the coagulation factors |
| Albumin | functions in osmotic pressure regulation |
| Globulins | Alpha, Beta, and Gamma |
| Alpha and Beta globulin | carrier vehicles to prevent substances in blood (e.g. hormones) from leaving the capillary too rapidly |
| Gamma Globulin | Natural and acquired immunity – Antibodies |
| Origin of Albumin and the alpha and beta globulins | formed in the liver |
| Origin of Gamma globulins | formed in the lymphoid tissues of the reticulo-endothelial system (found in the bone marrow, spleen, liver, and lymph nodes) |
| Erythrocyte Characteristics | no nucleus, can’t multiply, biconcave discs, no nucleus or e.r., no protein synthesis |
| Erythrocyte function | transport hemoglobin (oxygen) and CO2 |
| What increases erythrocytes? | Altitude, muscular exercise, temperature, age (higher in infants) |
| Erythropoiesis | production of red blood cells |
| Hematopoiesis | production of all blood cells |
| location of early embryo rbc synthesis | yolk sac |
| location of middle pregnancy rbc synthesis | liver, spleen, bone marrow |
| location of adult rbc synthesis | vertebrae, ribs, sternum |
| pathway for erythropoiesis | stem cell, proeryrthroblast, basophilic erythroblast, polychromatophilic, erythroblast, normoblast (nucleus lost), reticulocyte, mature RBC |
| Life span of RBC | 120 days |
| # of RBC destroyed per sec and per day | 2.5 million, 216 billion |
| # of molecules of Hb/RBC | 200 million |
| hemoglobin structure | protein globin and four hemes |
| structure of heme | porphyrin with Fe++ in middle |
| % of RBC is made of Hb | 34% |
| grams of Hb in 100 ml of blood | 15g |
| ml of oxygen that combines with each gram of Hb | 1.34ml |
| ml of O2 for 100ml of blood | 20ml |
| oxyhemoglobin | hemoglobin when saturated with 02 |
| carbamino hemoglobin | CO2 with Hb |
| carboxy hemoglobin | CO with Hb |
| biliverdin | porphyrin with the ring broken |
| bilirubin | biliverdin is converted to bilirubin to be excreted |
| jaundice | accumulation of bilirubin (caused by liver disease, excess red cell destruction, bile duct obstruction |
| anemia | decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of blood |
| symptoms of anemia | pale skin, fatigue, rapid heart rate |
| types of anemia | hemorrhagic, aplastic, nutritional, pernicious, hemolytic, folic acid deficiency |
| hemorrhagic anemia | blood loss |
| aplastic anemia | bone marrow destruction-cancer, too many x-rays, chemicals, drugs |
| Nutritional anemia | not enough iron |
| folic acid deficiency anemia | impairs normal mitosis |
| pernicious anemia | vit B12 deficiency which is required for bone marrow maturation; parietal cells in stomach make instrinsic factor necessary for vit B12 absorption |
| Hemolytic anemia | RBC destruction (sickel cell, erythroblastosis fetalis, lead/arsenic poisoning) |
| polycythemia | too many RBC |
| secondary polycythemia | elavation; no RBC pathology |
| primary polycythemia (erythremia) | tumor of bone marrow-sluggish blood |
| # of leukocytes | 6-12,000/mm^3 (production rate is equal to or greater than that of RBC's) |
| lifespan of leukocytes | 4 days to months |
| location of leukocytes | most found outside circulation |
| two types of leukocytes | granulocytes, agronulocytes |
| types of granulocytes | neutrophils, eosonophils, basophils |
| types of agranulocytes | lymphocytes, monocytes |
| % of each leukocyte making up all leukocytes | neutrophils 65-70, lymphocytes 20-24, monocytes 5, eosinophils 1-2, basophils 0-.5 |
| production sites of leukocytes | embryo-bone marrow, liver, spleen; adult-granulocytes-bone marrow, agranulocytes-lymphoid tissues |
| diapedesis | ability to squeeze through capillary walls (leukocyte ability) |
| chemotaxis | substance released from infected area to attract leukocytes |
| fxn of neutrophils | acute conditions; phagocytosis and NET fibers |
| fxn of eosinophils | allergic conditions |
| fxn of basophils | secrete anticoagulant heparin and histamine which are important in allergic rxns |
| fxn of lymphocytes | immune response |
| fxn of B-lymphocytes | produce antibodies |
| fxn of T-lymphocytes | destroy specific target cells |
| fxn of monocytes | chronic conditions; phagocytosics; macrophages which live for months or years |
| leukemia | too many leukocytes which are immature and useless; not enough RBC's and platelets |
| leukopenia | not enough WBC's' caused by radiation, drugs, chemicals |
| # of Thrombocytes | platelets- 150-350,000/mm^3 |
| formation of thrombocytes | bone marrow form megakaryocyte cells where pieces of the cytoplasm chip off and are platelets |
| thrombopoietin | thrombocyte production stimulant |
| life span of thrombocyte | 8 days to many months |
| fxn of thrombocytes | clotting; platelet plug |
| platelet chemicals which stimulate vasoconstriction and make other platelets sticky | ADP, serotonin, thromboxane A2 |
| platelet chemicals stimualting contraction | myosin and actin |
| PGI2-prostacyclin | inhibitor of platelet aggregation |
| nitric oxide | inhibitor of platelet aggregation |
| Thrombocytopenia | abnormally low # of platelets; exessive bleeding |
| thrombocytopenia purpura | purple spots on skin from poor blood clotting |
| pathway for blood clot | prothrombin activator activates prothrombin into thrombin which activates fibrinogen into a lose and then tight fibrin clot; Ca++ is needed to clot |
| syneresis | clot retraction |
| clotting factors 1-11 | 1.fibrinogen 2.prothrombin 3.tissue thromboplastin 4.calcium 5.accelerator globulin 6.none 7.serum prothrombin conversion accelerator 8.antihemophilic globulin (on X chromosome) 9.Christmas factor 10.stuart-power factor 11.plasma thromboplastin antecedent |
| clotting factors 12-13 | 12.Contact factor (initiates the overall rxn) 13.Fibrin stabilizing factor |
| Anticoagulants | Dicoumarol (Coumadin), Heparin, Citrates, Oxalates, EDTA, smooth inside surface of blood vessel |
| Dicoumarol (Coumadin) | interferes with vit K and thus factors 7,9,10 |
| heparin | interferes with thrombin and prothrombin formation (from basophils) |
| citrates, oxalates, edta | tie up calcium to stop clotting |
| edta | oj simpson |
| fibrinolysis | lysis of clots; plasminogen makes plasmin which degrades fibrin |
| conditions that cuase excessive bleeding in humans | liver disease (decreased clotting factors), vit K deficiency (decreased formation of prothrombin), hemophilia (lack of factor 8 or 9 or any other), thrombocytopenia (decreased platelets) |
| Thrombocytopenia | decreased platelets (less than 50,000) |
| Thrombus | clot attacched to blood vessel wall |
| embolus | clot that detaches from the wall and floats freely |
| external defense against disease | skin, digestive tract, respiratory tract, genitourinary tract |
| two types of immunity | non-specific and specific |
| non-specific immunity | inflammation, interferon, fever, natural killer cells, complement system |
| specific immunity | responds selectively to invaders (antigens) with antibodies which is an immune reaction |
| two types of specific immune responses | humoral immunity, cell-mediated immunity |
| humoral immunity | B-lymphocytes secrete antibodies into the blood and lymph |
| cell-mediated immunity | T-lymphocytes attack host cells that are infected |
| autoimmunity | formation of antibodies against a person's own tissues |
| examples of autoimmunity | rheumatic fever, grave's disease |
| rheumatic fever | antibodies produced against streptococcus bacteria cross react with the heart and kidney tissues |
| grave's disease | antibodies that stimulate the thyroid gland- mimic TSH |
| when are blood antibodies formed (ABO) | 2-8 months after birth; max levels at 8-10 years |
| agglutinins | clumping of blood cells from a transfusion reaction |
| how many Rh blood types are there | 6 C,D,E,c,d,e |
| % of people who are Rh+ | 85% |
| erythroblastosis fetalis | hemolytic anemia in the newborn Rh positive baby caused by meternal antibodies against the Rh factor that hvae crossed the placenta |
| Rhogam | antibodies against the Rh factor |
