Research Exam 2
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| Design validity | are you finding what you claim to find?
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| Internal validity | asks if it's the IV (or something else) that caused or resulted in the change in the DV
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| Threats to internal validity | history; selection; maturation; testing; mortality; instrumentation
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| Threats to internal validity: history | specific events occurring between 1st and 2nd measurement, not the IV
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| Threats to internal validity: Selection | biases in selection of sample
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| Threats to internal validity: Maturation | respondents change as a result of passage of time vs. the IV
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| Threats to internal validity: Testing | effects of taking a test on the scores of a second test
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| Threats to internal validity: Mortality | loss of respondents from control groups; goal usually maintain 80%
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| Threats to internal validity: instrumentation | changes in calibration of measuring instrument or changes in scorers may result in problems with measurements
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| External validity | questions the conditions under which the findings may be generalized; deals with the ability to generalize the findings outside the study; across types of persons, settings, et times
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| Threats to external validity | selections effects (who); reactive effects (where-how); measurement effects (how-when-what)
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| Sampling | process of selecting representative units of a population for study in a research investigation
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| Population | a well-defined set that has certain properties (people, animals, objects, events)
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| ID'ing population descriptors | specify inclusion (eligibility) criteria; specify exclusion (deliminations) criteria; ...leads to sample selection
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| Population descriptor examples | gender, age, marital status, SES, religion, ethnicity, education, health status, dx, co-morbidities
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| target population | the OVERALL GROUP of subjects or events to which the researcher is interested in generalizing conclusions
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| Accessible population | the group of PEOPLE AVAILABLE to the researcher from which to pick a sample
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| Sampling | a PROCESS OF SELECTING A PORTION OR SUBSET of the designated population to represent the entire population
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| Sample | a SUBSET of sampling units from a population
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| Sampling frame | a list of ALL UNITS of the population
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| Element | the most BASIC UNIT (SUBJECT) about which information is collected
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| Sampling elements | people, places, objects
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| Representative sample (representativeness) | one whose key characteristics closely approximate those of the population
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| Types of sampling strategies | probability; non-probability
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| Probability sampling strategies | each subject has an equal chance of being chosen to be in the sample; random selection
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| Simple random probability sampling | population defined, sampling frame listed, subset from this sample is randomly selected; (ex: names out of a hat)
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| Advantages of Simple random probability sampling | least bias; representativeness of sample to population characteristics maximized esp. c large sample size; differences d/t chance
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| Disadvantages of Simple random probability sampling | time consuming; inefficient; incomplete/inaccurate lists
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| Stratified probability sampling | selecting a sample that proportionally different subgroups (strata) in a population; an appropriate # of elements from each subgroup are randomly selected based on their proportion in the population (ex: 20%=2/10, 50%=5/10, 30%=3/10)
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| Multi-stage probability sampling | involves a successive random sampling of units (clusters) that progress from large to small and meets sample eligibility criteria (ex: sample of NPs -> begin c list of hospitals -> list of NPs -> sample of individual NPs)
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| Advantages of Multi-stage probability sampling | more economical in time et money, esp. if population is large et geographically dispersed
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| Disadvantages of Multi-stage probability sampling | more sampling errors; appropriate data analysis very complex
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| Systematic probability sampling | selection of subjects randomly drawn from a population list at fixed intervals; q Kth member; more convenient et efficient than simple random; may inadvertently introduce bias
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| Systematic probability sampling Kth equation KNOW!!! | population/sample size = Kth (ex: 40 people total/10 in sample = q 4th)
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| Non-probability sampling | non-random selection of sample
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| Convenience non-probability sampling | used the most; quantitative; non-random; any subject that is available, meets the inclusion criteria, et is willing to participate is included (ex: Ruth's asthma study)
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| Quota non-probability sampling | IDs strata of the population et proportionately represents the strata in teh sample; convenience sample in each strata (non-random selection) (ex: male/female opinion poll @ the mall, recruit until 50 men et 50 women surveyed)
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| Purposive non-probability sampling (Part 1) | Qualitative; effective pretesting of new instruments c purposive sample of divergent types of people; validation of scale/test; collect exploratory data r/t unusual/highly specific pop. particularly when total target pop. remains unknown to researcher
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| Purposive non-probability sampling (Part 2) | collection of descriptive data that seek to describe lived experience of particular phenomenon; focus of study pop. r/t specific dx or demographic characteristic; network or snowball sampling
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| Convenience sampling vs Purposive sampling | c = larger sample, p = smaller sample
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| Disproportionate sampling | certain proportion w/in sample, but choose more or less of certain sample to ensure enough sample (ex: 1 of 10 nursing students = males, but choose 10 males et 10 females for study)
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| Factors Influencing sample size | design; sampling procedure; formula to estimate optimum sample size; degree of precision needed; heterogeneity of attributes; relative frequency of phenomenon occurs; cost of strategy
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| Power Analysis - KNOW!!! | Equation used to determine sample size
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| Qualitative samples | purposive sampling; data saturation (no new data emerges during data - collection process)
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| What strategy was used if sampling strategy was not specified? | quant = convenience; qual = purposive
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| Epistemology | theory of knowledge; branch of philosophy that investigates how people know what they know; constructivist et positivist paradigm
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| constructivist paradigm | truth determined by the individual or cultural group; qualitative; subjectivism; multiple realities; influence culture et environment; truth from individual et group; context emphasize; aims to describe, understand, transform; active participant; dialogic
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| positivist paradigm | truth sought via replicable observation; quatitative; objectivism; "real reality"; natural laws drives; context min; aims to describe, predict, explain, control; neutral observer; experimental method
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| What is qualitative research? | study of research questions about human experiences. often conducted in natural settings, et uses data that are words or text, rather than numerical, in order to describe the experiences that are being studied
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| topics investigated using qualitative approach | personal et social construction of disease, prevention, tx, et risk; life c disease et tx; decision-making c begin et end of life issues; contextual factors r/t adherence, quality of caure, prevention et health promotion behaviors
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| qualitative research methods - purpose - KNOW!!!! | guide nursing practice; contribute to instrument development; build nursing theory
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| components of qualitative research report | literature review; study design; sample; setting; data collection; data analysis; findings
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| components of qualitative research report - literature review | very brief in intro; done mostly p data collection; integrated into findings
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| components of qualitative research report - sample | purposive sample; data saturation
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| components of qualitative research report - setting | naturalistic setting (ex: home, community)
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| components of qualitative research report - data collection | informal consent; words; time involved (# of times et how long interviewed); data saturation; grand tour question (the broad, main question of study)
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| components of qualitative research report - data analysis | find commonalities et differences; ID overarching categories that capture meaning; computer management of data; thorough reading/re-reading (learn their language)
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| components of qualitative research report - findings | detailed, descriptive language; metaphors, stories; lit review integrated into findings; themes, quotes presented to support findings
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| data saturation | keep looking for information until no longer hearing new information
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| qualitative research and EBP | insight or empathy; assessment of status or progress; anticipatory guidance; coaching; improve communication c pts et c each other
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| key methods of qualitative research | ethnography; grounded theory; pheomenology; case studies; historiography; participatory action research
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| phenomenology | a research approach that aims to describe experience as it is lived; a research method aimed at obtaining a DESCRIPTION of an experience as it is lived in order to understand the MEANING of that experience for those who have it
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| essence of phenomenology | description of the individual's LIVED EXPERIENCE
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| foundation of phenomenology | philosophy
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| structuring a study using phenomenology | research question, bracketing, sample selection, sample size, data saturation, data, computer management of data, data analysis, findings
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| bracketing | ID et set aside personal biases
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| sample selection for phenomenology studies | purposive sample; participants are living the experience or has lived the experience in the past
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| data for phenomenology studies | written, oral, tape-recorded, transcription, memos (mood, Qs, etc. not captured in transcription)
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| data analysis in phenomenology studies | reading et re-reading; significant phrases in participants words; central meaning in researcher's words; grouping together segments; synthesis of meanings
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| findings of phenomenology studies | detailed descriptive language
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| Grounded theory | theory that is constructed inductively from a base of observations of the world as it is lived by a selected group of people; MAIN FOCUS = SOCIAL INTERACTION
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| KNOW!!! Grounded theory method is used to ... | ...CONSTRUCT THEORY where no theory exists
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| Essence of grounded theory | uses systematic set of procedures to arrive at theory about basic social processes in groups
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| Foundation of grounded theory | symbolic interaction et the social sciences
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| Social processes of grounded theory | patterns of action et interaction among social units
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| symbolic interaction of grounded theory | focus on nature of social interaction among individuals
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| modifiability | ability to change theory in light of new data
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| data collection et data analysis of grounded theory | OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY; interviews; skilled observations of interactions; field notes; theoretical sampling
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| constant comparison in grounded theory | grounded theory method of data analysis
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| grounded theory findings | provide steps of process; logic of method; theory that has emerged
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| Ethnography | scientifically describes et interprets CULTURAL or social groups or systems
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| goal of ethnographer | understand natives' view of the world
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| essence of Ethnography | descriptions of cultural groups or subgroups
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| Foundation of Ethnography | cultural anthropology
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| eMic view of Ethnography | insider's view; views of the participants/Members of the social group
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| etic view of Ethnography | outsider's view; researcher's interpretation of views about the human social life in a social science perspective
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| research question of Ethnography | address questions that concern how cultural knowledge, norms, values, et other contextual variables influence one's health experience
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| sample selection of Ethnography | cultural group of living the experience under investigation; key informants
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| data collection of Ethnography | FIELDWORK; participant observation; immersion into setting; interviews of informants; collecting material items reflective of culture; photos, films, artwork, writing, etc; should be immersed for a while to ensure not observing any "acting"
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| data analysis of Ethnography | OCCURS SIMULTANEOUSLY c data collection; search for domains or symbolic categories
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| findings of Ethnography | pulling reader in; recreating experimental mood; adding surprise; reconstructing ethnographic experience; creating closure for the study
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| Naturalistic approach combines... | ethnography, phenomenology, et grounded theory; SEEN MOST OFTEN
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| Case study | studying peculiarities et the commonalities of a specific case
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| historical method | systematic compilation of data et the critical presentation, evaluation, et interpretation of facts regarding people, events, et occurrences of the past
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| essence of historical method | systematic compilation of data to describe some past event
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| foundation of historical method | philosophy, art et science
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| community based participatory research | participatory action research (PAR); systematically access the voice of a community to plan context appropriate action; change, or action is the intended "end-product"; look, think, act; community members equal partners in all phases of research process
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| basic components to research | ID phenomenon; structuring the study; gathering the data; analyzing the data; describing the findings
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| issues in qualitative research | ethics; naturalistic setting (gaining entry into settings); emergent nature of the design (change r/t findings); researcher-participant interaction (nurse-researching vs nurse-intervening); researcher as instrument
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| is the data-collection procedure appropriate to the method? | observation (field observation) (participant observation, immersion in setting, field notes); interviews (audiotaped et transcribed); review documents
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| criteria for judging scientific rigor - KNOW!!! | credibility (truth of findings) + auditability (accountability r/t info leading questions et steps in procedures) + fittingness (faithfulness to reality) = confirmability (findings reflect implementation three standards involved)
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| trustworthiness | rigor or goodness of data
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| verification procedures | prolonged engagement et persistent observation; peer review or debriefing; negative case analysis; bracketing; member checks; thick, rich description; external audits
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| triangulation | combining methods, theories, data, sources, or investigators to converge on a single construct; inc strength et consistency of evidence; uses both qual et quant
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| Research Design Purpose: Plan Control | Objectivity; accuracy; feasibility; control; homogeneous sample; constancy; manipulation; randomization
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| Feasibility of design | time; subject availability; facility et equipment availability; money; researcher experience; ethics
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| control of design | intervention fidelity (faithful to design); consistency
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| constancy of design | intervention fidelity
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| Manipulation of design | experimental; control group
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| Elements of research design | participants (who); observations (what); measurement of time (when); selection of subjects (where); role of investigator
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| Purpose of research | to describe et explain how et why people behave the way they do; need to know this to effectively intervene
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| Selection of design | appropriate to research question; max control; hold conditions of study constant; estab specific sampling criteria; max level of evidence --> max control
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| Philosophical underpinnings of design |
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| Experimental Design Features - KNOW!!! | Randomization; control group; manipulation (IV); level 2 randomized control has to have ALL 3 features to be true randomized trials
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| Experimental Design Types: Level 2 Evidence | true experimental design; solomon four-group design; after-only design (quantitative)
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| Experimental Design: Advantages et Disadvantages | ONLY way to truly test cause et effect; highest level of evidence for single studies; not all research Qs amenable to experimental manipulation or randomization; costly; threats to internal validity; difficult logistics in field; hawthorne effect
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| hawthorne effect | just being observed makes people "act" differently
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| quasi-experimental types: level 3 evidence | nonequivalent control group design; after-only nonequivalent group design; one-group (pretest-posttest design); time series design
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| Experimental | Level 2; randomization; control group; manipulation
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| Quasi-experimental | Level 3; no randomization; non-equivalent or no control group; typically, there is manipulation of the IV
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| quasi-experimental: advantages et disadvantages | practical et more feasible, especially in clinical settings; some generalizability; unable to make clear cause et effect statements; many not be able to randomize; may control some extraneous variables (a priori by design, statistically)
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| the EBP connection | experimental et quasi-experimental studies offer strongest evidence for interventions; collect strongest, most relevant et current evidence r/t your question; critically evaluate the study for quality
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| non-experimental studies | no manipulating IV (IV already occurred); concepts of control still observed; cohort-subjects of a specific group that are being studied
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| survey studies | descriptive, exploratory, comparative
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| advantages of survey studies | economical way to gather large amount of data from a large population; fairly accurate
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| disadvantages of survey studies | superficial info; time consuming et costly; requires expertise (instrument construction, sampling techniques, interviewing, data analysis)
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| developmental studies | cross-sectional, longitudinal et prospective studies, retrospective et ex post facto studies
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| correlational studies | examining relationship b/w variables; as 1 variable changes does related change occur in other variable?; quantifies strength of relationship; descriptive or predictive; do NOT determine cause et effect
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| difference studies | comparison of means
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| developmental studies | concerned c relationships et differences - @ 1 point in time AND c changes that result over time
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| cross-sectional studies | one point in time; can explore relationships et correlations; can explore comparisons or differences
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| longitudinal/prospective or cohort studies | collect data from same cohort (group) @ different times; relationships et differences; repeated measures
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| retrospective/ex post facto/case control studies | looking back
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| non-experiemental design advantages et disadvantages (part 1) | difficulty explaining cause et effect relationships; important to developing knowledge base about phenomenon of interest; useful in forecasting or making predictions; designs when randomization, control et manipulation are not appropriate/possible
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| non-experiemental design advantages et disadvantages (part 2) | useful in testing theoretical models of how variables work together in a group in a particular situation
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| methodologic research | development et eval of data (instruments, scales, techniques); psychometrics (measurement of concepts such as anxiety, hope, etc.)
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| meta-analysis | research method; each study is unit of analysis
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| secondary analysis | researcher takes data from 1 study et asks a different question for a secondary purpose
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