MoveSci 110
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| Human motor control | Study of how the body moves or is stabilized in space; movement and posture; basis for nearly all of our interactions with the environment and everything that we do
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| Golgi, Camillo | Discovered neuron (accidentally); said all neurons are interconnected (wrong)
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| Cajal, Santiago y | Neuron Doctrine; identified neurons as separate identities
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| Neuron Doctrine | Cajal; identifies neurons as the most functional and structural units of the nervous system
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| Broca, Paul | Broca's area (speech); expressive aphasia
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| Expressive aphasia | Lack of ability to express yourself through speech
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| Wernicke, Karl | Wernicke's area; receptive aphasia
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| Receptive aphasia | Inability to understand spoken words
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| Fritsch, Gustav and Hitzig, Edward | "Motor centers"; contralateral control (left side controls right, etc.); electrically stimulated dogs' brains
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| Brodmann, Korbinian | Cytoarchitechtonics; 53 different functional areas of cerebral cortex based on nerve structure
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| Sherrington, Sir Charles | Father of modern motor control; spinal cord is the "final common pathway"; coined "synapse" and "proprioception"
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| Simple reaction time test | "RT test"; reaction time, from fastest to slowest: kinesthetic, auditory, visual
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| Kinematic data | Received using motion analysis system; position, velocity, acceleration
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| Infrared corneal reflection (I-RCR) | Eye movements
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| Electromyography (EMG) | Balance and posture; measures electric activity of a contracting muscle
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| Physiological techniques (goal) | Determine the relationship between a particular structure or area of the brain and its role in the control of movement
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| How to record brain activity (humans) | fMRI, EEG
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| How to record brain activity (animals) | Intra-Cortical Microstimulation (ICMS)
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| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging | fMRI; localizes neural activity by examining regional cerebral blood flow
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| Electroencephalography | EEG; measure electrical activity of brain on scalp; many trials have to be taken and averaged
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| Intra-Cortical Microstimulation (ICMS) | Gain access to brain area of interest, insert electrode into brain to record electrical activity from neurons while animal performs task; used as a guide in brain surgery
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| 2 approaches to determine the relation of a brain area to a control of movement | Record brain correlates of movement; stimulate/interfere with brain functions (observe deficits)
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| How to interfere with brain function (humans) | Transcranial magnetic stimulation: over part of brain (messes with brain), looks at temporal and spatial resolution; lesion studies (isolate groups)
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| How to interfere with brain function (animals) | Temporary or permanent lesions
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| Disadvantages of lesion studies | Lesion extent (hard to find exact same); rest of brain adapts (works around handicap)
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| 2 systems necessary for movement | Muscular and nervous
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| Muscular system | Creates movement via contraction/relaxation of muscle fibers; "motors"
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| Nervous system | Dictates muscle activity; "controllers"; CNS and PNS; all neurons and glia that are (CNS) or are not (PNS) entirely contained within the brain and/or spinal cord
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| Organization of the nervous system | Hierarchical: cord is "simple" compared to brain
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| Alphamotors | 31; neurons; only way to get a muscle to contract
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| Nucleus | Genetic center of the cell
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| Dendrites | Receive information from other neurons
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| Cell body | "Soma"; sums information from dendrites/other terminals
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| Axon | Transmits information from the cell body
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| Presynaptic Terminal | Attaches to other neurons to relay information
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| Neurons (classification) | Sensory, interneurons, motor
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| Sensory neurons | Deliver info to CNS from endings on the surface of the body and within muscles and tendons; give info about the body relative to environment; afferent
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| Afferent | Carrying information TO the CNS; sensory information
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| Interneurons | Bulk of CNS; perform processing functions (memory, planning, etc.); connect multiple neurons with (multiple) other neurons
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| (Alpha) Motor neurons | Neurons connected to muscle cells which cause muscle contractions; necessary to perform any voluntary movement; efferent
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| Efferent | Carrying info AWAY FROM the CNS
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| Glial cells | 6; "glue"; insulate, support, and nourish neighboring neurons; outnumber neurons 10:1
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| Key glial cells | Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells
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| Myelin | Fatty substance wrapped around neuron (insulates); covers the axons of neurons; speed up transmission of neural impulses
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| Action potentials (AP) | Electrical signals carried by neurons and muscle fibers; created by shift in membrane ions (K+, Na+) and is therefore measured as a change in voltage
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| 4 steps of neuromuscular communication | Resting membrane potential, depolarization, repolarization/hyperpolarization, restoration of RMP
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| Resting membrane potential | Ion concentrations are stable, with the net charge ~ -70mV
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| Depolarization | Ions (Na+) move inside the cell, making the voltage more positive. When the net charge reaches threshold (~ -55mV), an AP is imminent
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| Threshold (AP) | ~ -55mV
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| "All or none" (AP) | Need threshold: more (same reaction as threshold) or less (nothing will happen)
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| Repolarization/hyperpolarization | Ions shift back towards resting potential (-70mV) via K+ channels, but overcompensate by spamming cell membrane (greater than -70mV)
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| Restoration of RMP | Membrane slowly return to baseline level of -70mV
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| "Action potentials are propagated down the axon." | The part of the axon behind part A is preparing to do what A just finished
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| Principle of Dynamic Polarization | Cajal; one-way flow of AP
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| Cell-to-cell communication occurs via... | Synapses
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| Cell-to-cell communication | AP depolarizes the axon terminal, opening voltage-gated Ca2+ channels for Ca2+ to enter the cell, triggering exocytosis of synaptic vesicle contents. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind with receptors on the postsynaptic cell.
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| Acetylcholine (ACh) | Is released to bind to receptor on muscle membrane; results in electrical stimulation of muscle (makes it contract)
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| Neuromuscular junction problems | Botulism (prevent ACh exocytosis); curare (blocks ACh receptors); black widow spider venom (inhibits vesicle recycling)
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| 3 different sensory receptors for each of the sense have 3 things in common: | Respond to a physical stimulus, convert stimulus to APs, give information to CNS
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| Sensation v. Perception | Sometimes a delay between sense and knowledge of it (we don't live life in "real time")
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| Light enters eye... | And is focused by lens onto retina.
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| Fovea | Detail and color at back of eye
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| Electrical signals from photoreceptors | Are transmitted to brain to allow for perception
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| How the lens focuses light rays on the retina | Refracts them
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| If an object moves closer to the eye, lens must | Change shape to keep focus
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| Accommodation | Changing lens shape
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| Flatten lens | Relax ciliary muscles; far objects
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| Rounded lens | Contract ciliary muscles; near objects
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| Hyperopia | Farsightedness; eyeball is too short, focal point behind retina; fixed by convex lenses (refracts light inward before entering eye)
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| Myopia | Nearsightedness; eyeball is too long, focal point in front of retina; fixed by concave lenses (refracts light outward before entering eye)
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| Photoreceptors | Light travels through retinal cells, reflects off back layer of eyeball, then stimulates photoreceptors; converts light energy to electrical signals at the retina; rearmost layer cells at retina
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| Photoreceptors (2 types) | Rods, cones
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| Rod | Mostly in peripheral retina; function well in low light; monochromatic; simpler
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| Cone | Most abundant at fovea; color vision; color pair; doesn't work well at night
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| Optic nerve | Second cranial nerve; ganglion cells
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| Optic disk | Optic nerve and blood supply to eye go through; no photoreceptors (creates blind spot)
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| Optic chiasm | Where ganglion cells from the nasal hemiretinas cross
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| Ganglion cells from the temporal hemiretinas stay or move? | Stay on the same side
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| Lateral geniculate body | Nerve takes info to thalamus (occipital lobe: primary visual cortex (V1))
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| Focal distance | Distance between lens and retina
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| V1 projects to 2 streams | Ventral and dorsal
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| Ventral stream | Temporal lobe; "what"
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| Dorsal stream | Parietal love; "where"
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| Grandmother neurons | Face recognition neurons
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| Visual neglect | Stroke affecting right parietal cortex (dorsal stream); lose concept of "left"
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| Prosopagnosia | Stroke affecting ventral stream; difficulty recognizing faces
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| Muscles moving eyes | 6 extraocular muscles (3 pairs)
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| Agonist | Produces movement
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| Antagonist | Resists movement
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| Superior rectus/inferior rectus | Located above/below eye; elevates/depresses (looks above or below eye-level)
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| Lateral rectus/medial rectus | Located on either side of eye; abduction/adduction (turns eye away from/to midline)
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| Superior oblique/inferior oblique | Located above/below eye; starts at same place as rectus, but passes through a pulley; intorsion/extorsion (rotates eye); synergists (help the other muscles)
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| 3 cranial nerves controlling extraocular muscles | Oculomotor, trochlear, abducens
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| Oculomotor nerve | Superior rectus; medial rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique
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| Trochlear nerve | Superior oblique (pulley supporting superior oblique is called "trochlea")
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| Abducens | Lateral rectus (lateral rectus abducts)
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| Diplopia | Double vision
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| Eye movements | Saccades, smooth pursuit, vergence, vestibuloocular reflex, optokinetic nystagmus
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| Saccades | Very fast; quickly bring new areas of interest onto fovea; REM sleep; do NOT need to see to produce
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| Smooth pursuit | Track moving objects; maintain image on fovea; image NECESSARY to produce; match velocity of object to velocity of eye
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| Vergence | Eliminates retinal disparity
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| Optokinetic nystagmus | Shakes eye; nystagmus: driver's ed (alcohol)
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| Superior colliculus | Eye movements are controlled in the brain stem; affected by several cortical and subcortical sites
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