Physiology - Guyton Text
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| synapse | junction point from one neuron to the next; signal passes in forward direct; almost all synapses are CHEMICAL in CNS
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| sensory information | 99% is discarded as irrelevant and unimportant
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| memory | storage in cerebral cortex (largest memory storehouse)
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| spinal cord level of CNS | controls walking mvmts & reflexes
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| lower levels of CNS | controls most of subconscious activities of body
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| neurotransmitters | chemical substance secreted by neurons; NOREPINEPHRINE -> excitatory/inhibitory; ACETYLCHOLINE -> excitatory but can inhibit some parasympath. fibres; DOPAMINE & SERATONIN -> inhibitory
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| chemical synapses | ideal for nerve transmission due to unidirectional signal
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| spatial summation | summing postsynaptic potentials by activating multiple terminals on widely spaced areas of membrane; increased signal strength trasmitted by using progressively GREATER NUMBERS of fibres
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| temporal summation | successive discharge from SINGLE presynaptic terminal can summate if they occur rapidly enough; increased signal strength transmitted by increasing FREQUENCY of nerve impulses in each fibre
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| mechanical sensory receptors | detects compression or stretching
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| thermal sensory receptors | detects temperature changes; located under skin in discrete & separate spots
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| nociceptor sensory receptors | detects tissue damage
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| electro sensory receptors | detects light
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| all receptors | are non-responsive to other types of stimuli but a special characteristic is that they adapt to a constant stimulus after a period of time
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| reciprocal inhibition circuit | neurol circuit which controls all antagonistic pairs of muscles, involves output excitatory signal in one direction & at same time w/ inhibitory signal going elsewhere
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| after discharge | signal entering neuronal pool causing prolonged output, lasting after incoming signal is over
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| somatic senses | collect sensory info. from body (ie. mechano, thermo, pain)
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| special senses | vision, hearing, smell, taste & equilibrium
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| mechano senses | type of somatic sense; stimulated by mechanical displacement of tissues
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| thermo sense | type of somatic sense stimulated by heat & cold sensations
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| pain | type of somatic sense stimulated by any factor that damages tissues; cenrtain tactile receptors can depress transmission of pain signals
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| positional sense | detects static position & rate of mvmt
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| proprioception | sense that have to do w/ physical state of body (ie. position, tendon, muscle, equilibrium)
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| (blank) | touch, pressure & vibration are detected by same types of receptors
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| free nerve endings | tactile receptor located in skin & other tissues that detect touch & pressure; pain receptors
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| Meissner's Corpuscles | nerve endings in non-hairy parts of skin (LIPS & FINGERTIPS) that adapt quickly & are sensitive to mvmt of objects against skin
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| Merkle's Disc | expanded tip receptors grouped into units [Iggo Dome] located in hairy & non-hairy parts of skin, slow to adapt, detects steady state signals about continual touch against skin
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| hair end organ | receptor that incl. hair & nerve fibre entwined at bad that adapts readily & detects mvmt of & initial contact of objects on surface of skin
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| Ruffini's End Organ | nerve fibres found in deep layers of skin & jt capsulles that adapt slowly & signal continuous states of deformation of skin/deeper tissues & degree of jt rotation
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| Pacinian Corpuscle | nerve fibres located immediately underneath skin of deep tissue, adapts quickly, are stimulated by rapid mvmt of tissues & are important for detecting tissue vibration
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| vibration | involves detection of ALL different tactile receptors
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| tickle & itch | detected by very sensitive rapidly adapting mechanoreceptive nerve endings found almost exclusively in superficial layers of skin
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| dorsal column-medial lemniscal (DC-ML) pathway | sensory pthwy transmits info w/ temporal & spatial fidelity, mainly transmits discrete types of mechanoreceptive sensations
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| Anterolater pathway | sensory pthwy transmits broad spectrum of snesory modalities (pain, temp., crude tactile, tickle/itch) slower & w/o spatial fidelity
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| sensory input | posterior areas of cerebral cortecx
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| motor control | anterior areas of cerebral cortex
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| lips | represent by largeest areas in somatic cortex
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| muscle spindle | detection of mid-range jt angulation; proprioceptive sensory receptor located in muscle belly regarding length & rate of change of length
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| pacinian-ruffini | detection of EXTREME jt angulation
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| pacini & muscle spindle | detects rate of mvmt
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| dermotome | spinal nerve that carries info. from segmental field of skin
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| fast pain | sharp, prickling, acute, electric; not felt in deep tissues; elicited by thermal or mechanical stimuli
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| slow pain | slow, burning, aching, throbbing, nauseous, chronic & can lead to prolonged unbearable suffering; is associated w/ tissue destruction; can occur in skin & deep tissues; elicited by mechanical, thermal & chemical stimuli
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| pain receptors | adapt very little & sometimes not at all
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| hyperalgesia | increased sensitvity of pain receptors (keeps person apprised of tissue damage)
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| intensity of pain | correlated w/ rate of tissue damage
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| muscle spasm | can cause pain, possibly due to direct stimulation of pain receptors or indirect effects (ie. ischemia)
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| fast-sharp pain | apprises person rapidly of damaging influence for reaction of immediate removal of stimulus
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| slow-chronic pain | gets greater over time, person continues to relieve cause of pain
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| analgesia | capability of brain to suppress input of pain signals; morphine suppress pain signals entering from peripheral nrv
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| referred pain | felt in body part considerably remote from tissue causing pain; occurs because some signals from viscera conducted thru same neurons that conduct pain signals from skin
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| headache | pain referred to head from deep head structures; can be caused by emotional tension which causes spasm of head/neck muscles
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| migraine | special type of headache result from abnormal vascular phenomena
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| anterior motor neurons | (specifically alpha motor neurons) leave spinal cord & innervate skeletal muscles
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| proper control of muscle fx | requires continuous sensory feedback from each muscle
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| Golgi tendon organ (GTO) | proprioceptive sensory receptor located in muscle tendon, detects tendon tension & rate of change of tension; causes inhibition of motor neurons; neutralizes contractile force on separate muscle fibres
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| contraction | trigger involving muscle stretch reflex involves stretch of muscle (by muscle spindles)
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| stretch reflex | prevents oscillation or jerkiness of body mvmt providing DAMPENING effect or smoothing fx
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| voluntary movements | initiated by cerebral cortex by activating PATTERN of fx stored in lower centres which signal muscles
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| primary motor area | topographical representation of muscles in body w/ more than 1/2 concerned w/ control of hands & speech; excitation of single neuron excites specific mvmt (not single muscle)
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| anterior part of premotor cortex | generates MOTOR IMAGE for muscle mvmt, then excites complex patterns of mvmt
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| supplementary motor cortex | stimulate BILATERAL mvmt
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| corticospinal tract | most import pthwy, aka DIRECT PYRAMIDAL PTHWY, carries motor signals directly from primary motor cortex down sp. cord
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| direct pathways | aka corticospinal tract; controls discrete & detailed mvmts esp. of distal segments of limb
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| extra pyramidal system | include all motor pthwys in brain that are NOT part of pyramidal system
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| brain stem | provides special control fx (ie. respiration, arterila pressure, cardiovasc., equilibrium & stereotyped mvmts of body); acts w/ cerebellum to control mvmts & maintain equilibrium
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| vestibular apparatus | sensory organ detects sensation of equilibrium
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| semicircular ducts | detect rate & direction of rotation of head in all 3 planes of space
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| utricle & sacculae | responsible for informing brain of position of head w/ respect to gravity
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| cerebellum | major role in timing of motor activities & in rapid smooth progression of mvmts
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| basal ganglia | works with corticosp. syst. to plan & control complex patterns of muscle mvmts
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| spinal level of motor cortex | programmed local patterns of mvmt
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| hind brain | maintenance & axial body tome for standing & maintaining equilibrium
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| motor cortex | complex patterns of mvmt & can bypass programmed patterns
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| cord patterns | determined at birth, "hard-wired"
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| cerebral cortex | all areas have extensive to-&-fro connections w/ deeper structures of brain; two halves of brain have INDEPENDANT capabilities for consciousness, memory storage, communcation & motor activity control
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| thalamus | excitation of thalamus is necessary for almost all cortical activity; almost all pthwys from sensory organs pass thru thalmus to cortex
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| association areas of cerebral cortex | receives & analyzes signals from multiple regions of brain
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| Wernicke's | an association area responsible for language comprehension
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| pre-frontal | association area helps plan complex patterns & sequences of motor mvmt
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| working memory | ability of brain to store many pieces of info on short term basis, used to analyze new thoughts entering brain
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| Broca's | association area responsible for motor patterns for word formation by exciting larynx, resp. syst & mouth muscles
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| limbic system | association area concerned w/ behaviour, emotions & motivation
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| corpus callosum AND anterior commisure | makes info stored in cortex of one hemisphere available to corresponding cortical areas of opposite hemisphere
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| corpus callosum | required for boh sides of brain to operate
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| anterior commisure | important role in unifying EMOTIONAL responses of 2 sides of brain
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| holistic theory | a thought results from "pattern" of stimulation of many parts of nerv. syst. at the same time
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| consciousness | continuing stream of awareness of either our surroundings or our sequential thoughts
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| memory traces | memories caused by changes in sensitivity of synaptic tranmission <-> neurons as a result of prev. neural activity, forms new or facilitated pthwy; once established, can activate "thinking" to reproduce memories
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| short-term memory | caused by continual neuronal activity resulting from nerve signals travelling around temporary memory trace thru circuit of reverberating neurons
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| intermediate memory | temporary chemical &/or physical changes
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| long-term memory | result of actual structural changes instead of only chemical changes
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| short- term to long-term memory | must be consolidated for conversion; consolidation happens when actively repeating something, initiating chemical, physical & anatomical changes in synapes
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| reticular area of brain stem | main part of nerv. syst. which controls excitation of cerebral cortex
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| positive feedback loop | activation of cerebrum excites brain stem which activates cerebrum more leading "awake mind"
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| hypothalamus | major part of limbic syst for its ability to control vegetative fx of brain closely related to behaviour
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| autonomic nervous system (ANS) | activated by centres of spinal cord, brain stem & hypothalamus
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| sympathetic nerve fibres | originate <-> T1 to L2 of sp. cord
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| parasympathetic nerve fibres | originate from cranial & sacral nerves of sp. cord; 75% originate from CN X (vagus)
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| norepinephrine | neurotransmitter released by most SNS fibres that supply blood vessels; vasoconstrictor
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| acetylcholine | neurotransmitter released by most PNS fibres; stimulates all types of gastric glands to release secretions
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| sympathetic nervous system (SNS) | pupil dilation, increased heart activity, blood vessel constriction
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| parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) | pupil constriction, increased peristalsis, decreased heart rate
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| adrenal medulla | releases epineph. & norepineph. into blood upon sympathetic stimulation; effects last 5-10x longer than direct sympathetic stimulation
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| mass discharge | all portions of SNS discharge simultaneously; aka STRESS RESPONSE, allows person to perform greater stenuous physical act. otherwise possible
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| right side of heart | pumps blood to lungs
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| left side of heart | pumps blood to all body except lungs
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| ventricles | supplies main forces of contraction
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| heart | composed of atrial & ventricular muscle tissues & specialized excitatory & conductive fibres; cardiac muscle contraction lasts 15x longer than skeletal
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| intercalated discs | cell membranes separating individual cardiac muscle cells
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| gap junction | diffusion of ions from one cardiac muscle cell to the next
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| syncytium | when one cell is excited, the action potential spreads to all
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| calcium | unique to cardiac muscles for prolonged contractions
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| diastole | period of relaxation when heart fills w/ blood; 75% of blood flows from atria to ventricles; AV valves open, during atrial systole they open, during ventricular systole they close
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| systole | period of contraction when heart expels blood; 25% of blood pushed into ventricle when atria contracts; semilunar (SL) valves closed, atrial diastole they close, ventricular diastole they open
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| atrioventricular (AV) valves | tricuspid & mitral valves; 1st heart sound which sounds low & long
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| semilunar (SL) valves | pulmonary & aortic valves; edges of SL valves subject to greater mechanical stress than AV valves; 2nd heart sound which sounds short snap due to closing
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| papillary muscles & chordae tendinae | prevent AV valves from bulging back into atrium during ventricular systole
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| Frank-Starling Mechanism | the greater the stretch of heart during filling, the greater the contraction
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| ventricle relaxed | AV open, SL closed
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| ventricle contracted | AV closed, SL open
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| sinus node | located in superior posterolateral wall of right atrium; sets rhythm of heart because it emits new impulses FASTER than AV or Purkinje; aka pacemaker
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| internodal pathways | bundles of specialized fibres that connect sinus node & AV node
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| cardiac impulse delay | delayed @ AV node due to fewer gap junctions <-> cells; also allows atria to contract & finish filling ventricles before ventric. contraction
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| atrialventricular (AV) bundles | fibres that conduct impulse from AV node to ventricles
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| Purkinje fibres | conduct impulse from AV bundle to all parts of ventricles 6x faster & 150x faster than AV node
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| cardiac output | quantity of blood pumped into aorta per minute; mainly controlled by venous return
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| venous return | quantity of blood flowing from veins into right atrium per minute; sum of all local blood flow from individual tissue segments of peripheral circulation
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| heart less efficient | factors that increase total peripheral resistance increases cardiac output
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| heart more efficient | factors that decrease total peripheral resistance would increase cardiac output; nerv. stimulation & hypertrophy of heart muscles -> better pump
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| systemic circulation | supplies blood to all tissues except lungs
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| arteries | transport blood under high pressure to tissues; contains 13% of total blood volume; control of pressure independant of local bl. flow & cardiac output
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| arterioles | act as control conduits that release blood into capillaries
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| capillaries | exchange of substances <-> blood & interstitial fluids
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| venules | have pores only permeable to H2O & small molecular substances; collects blood directly from capillaries
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| veins | transport blood from tissues back to heart; major reservoir of blood (64%)
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| pulmonary circulatory system | contains 9% of total blood vol.; 25/8 mmHg (sys/dia)
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| blood pressure | force exerted by blood against any unit area of vessel wall
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| resistance | impediment to blood flow in vessel
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| total peripheral resistance | resistance of entire systemic circulation
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| viscosity of blood | determined by red blood cells
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| hematocrit | %age of blood composed of cells
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| arterial compliance | pulse pressure of heart affected by stroke volume output
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| spleen | specific blood reservoir & destroys old blood red blood cells
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| red pulp | area of spleen where RBC stored
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| microcirculation | transport of nutrients to tissues & removal of cellular excreta
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| metaarterioles | structure <-> arteriole & capillary
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| precapillary sphincter | smooth muscle fibre around metaarteriole to control entrance of blood into capillary
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| intercellular cleft | thin passageway <-> adjacent endothelial cells of capillaries
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| vasomotion | on/off flow of blood thru capillaries; controlled by oxygen
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| diffusion | means of substance transport in/out of capillaries
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| water | smallest substance passes thru capill. pores
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| plasma proteins | larger than capillary pores
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| interstitium | spaces <-> cells of body; low concentrations of proteins
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| interstitial fluid | fluid that fills spaces <-> cells of body
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| collagen | long, strong structures in interstitium, provides tensional strength to tissues
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| proteoglycan filaments | aka "brush pile", thin, coiled & form a mat of fine filaments
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| tissue gel | combination of solid structures of interstitium & trapped fluid
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| collotid osmotic pressure | osmotic pressure caused by plasma proteins
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| lymphatic system | accessory route from interstitial space into blood & carries proteins & large particulate matter away from tissue spaces; 1/10 fluid filters into interstitium from capilliaries NOT reabsorbed & is returned to circulation
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| thoracic duct | lymph flow from lower body, left head, left arm & chest
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| right lymph duct | lymph flow from right neck & head, right arm & thorax
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| lymphatic endothelial cells | overlap & act like valves pushed open by pressure & pushed closed by backflow
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| oxygen-lack theory of local blood flow | inadequate levels of oxygen & nutrients cause blood vessels to relax & dilate
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| reactive hyperemia | increased blood flow to tissues recently suffered of blood supply deprivation
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| active hyperemia | increased blood flow to tissues highly active
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| nitric oxide | vasodilating substance due to shear stress from increased blood flow
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| angiogenic | vascular growth factors involved in reconstructing tissue vascularity in response to long-term changes in blood flow
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| angiotensin | powerfully constricts all arterioles & mainly involved in arterial pressure regulation
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| vasopressin | an antidiuretic hormone secreted by hypothalamus & acts to increase reabsorption of water by kidneys
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| histamine | vasodilater substance released when tissues are damaged or inflamed but also involved in allergic reactions; causes bronchiolar constriction; secreted by gastric glands
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| increased arterial pressure | constriction of arterioles & veins & increase cardiac pumping when occuring simultaneously
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| baroreptor | nervous reflex initiated by stretch receptors which then send signals to CNS about changes in arterial pressure; when person stands after lying down baroreceptor maintains arterial pressure in upper body; located in large systemic arteries
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| chemoreceptors | nerv. reflex involve receptos sensitive to oxygen lack, carbon dioxide & hydrogen ion excess; located in large systemic arteries; involved in maintaining arterial pressure at pressure lower than normal range
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| fx of red blood cells | transports hemoglobin to deliver oxygen to tissues; do not rupture when squeezed thru capillaries due to excess of cell membrane
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| red blood cells (RBC) | produced in bone marrow; matures from proerythroblast to reticulocyte stage gains hemoglobin & lose their nucleus; excess may impede blood flow; survives 120 days in bl. stream
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| RBC formation | rate not controlled by concentration in blood stream but by their ability to transport oxygen
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| erythropoietin | released from kidneys & liver triggered by low oxygen levels to produce more RBC
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| Vit B12 & Folic Acid | critical for RBC maturatoin
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| interaction between hemoglobin & oxygen | loose & reversible; hemoglobin helps to maintain oxygen pressure in tissues regardless of fluctuations of O2 concentration in alveoli (Buffer System)
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| iron | important for formation of hemoglobin; free iron in blood -> "transferrin"; iron stored in cells -> "ferratin"; iron lost during blood loss; when RBC bursts iron release for storage in liver
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| hemoglobin | transported by RBCs for delivery of oxygen; is broken down & converted into bilirubin when RBC cells burst; enhances transport of oxygen 30-100x
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| anemia | deficiency of hemoglobin
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| white blood cells (WBC) | combats infectious & toxic agents, specifically transported to areas of infection; recruited during inflammation
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| granulocytes | are neutrophils, eosinophils & basophils; formed in bone marrow
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| phagocytosis | are granulocytes & monocytes which help protect body & cellular ingests foreign invaders
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| lymphogenous tissues | where lymphocytes & plasma cells are formed
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| neutrophils | WBC capable of phagocytosing bacteria in circulating blood; already mature when it enters tissues, can only ingest small # of bacteria before dying; 2nd line of defence few hrs after inflammation (enters tissue via diapedesis)
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| monocytes | inactive while in blood steam, only become activated once they enter tissues; formed in bone marrow
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| macrophage | derived from monocytes; able to ingest many & large particles, can survive many months; actions of macrophages can injure healthy living tissues around injured area; responsible for presenting antigens to B & T cells
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| diapedesis | cell squeezing thru small opening by sliding only a small portion of itself thru
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| chemotaxis | mvmt of cells towards source of chemical sign; draws neutrophils & monocytes towards tissues in inflamed state
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| tissue macrophage | first line of defence of tissue injury; phagocytic cells attached to tissues & remain after inflammation subsides
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| sinusoids of liver | macrophage lined structure where inaders entering via GI tract enters portal blood & must pass thru
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| inflammation | dramatic 2ndary changes observed after injury to tissue
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| margination | sticking of cells to capillary walls near areas of inflammation
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| pus | mixture of necrotic tissues, dead phagocytes, tissue fluids, etc found in areas of inflammation
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| eosinophils | involved in specifically targeting parasitic invaders
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| basophils | involved in allergic reactions & are similar to mast cells by liberating heparin (anticoagulant) & histamine (vasodilator) into blood
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| immunity | ability to resist different types of organisms & toxins
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| acquired immunity | doesn't develop until after body first attacked by disease/toxin; B & T cells basic types activated when exposed & reacts w/ specific antigens
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| innate immunity | general processes for killing invaders
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| humoral cells | aka B lymphocytes, acquired immunity that secretes antibodies which bind attacking agent; formed in bone marrow; secrete antibodies which bind antigen
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| cell-mediated cells | T lymphocytes, type of acquired immunity that directly attack & destroy foreign agents; formed in thymus; directly bind to antigens using receptors
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| antigens | specific chemical compounds that makes organism different from all others
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| lymph nodes | contains majority of lymphocytes
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| spleen & bone marrow | 2 types of lymph tissues that play important role in intercepting agents in circulating blood
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| helper T cells | contributes to activation of B cells; most numerous type of T cells; regulates all immune fxs, destroyed/inactivated by AIDS virus
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| plasma | activated B cells that have differentiated & producing antibodies
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| memory cells | activated B & T cells circulated to & remain dormant in various lymph tissues to provide faster & potent response if body exposed to same antigen again
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| antibodies | immunoglobin compounds that bind specific antigens
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| IgG | most common immunoglobin
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| IgE | immunoglobin primarily involved in allergic response
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| complement system | grp of proteins that aid in destruction of antigens by promoting opsonization, phagocytosis, agglutination& activation of basophils & inflam. response
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| cytotoxic T cells | directly attacks & kills microorganisms
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| suppressor T cells | suppresses fx of other T cells
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| immunization | process which acquired immunity is induced by injecting dead/attenuated organisms &/or altered toxins
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| goals of respiration | to provide oxygen to & to remove carbon dioxide, from tissues
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| pulmonary pressure | inflow/outflow of air <-> atmosphere & lung alveoli
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| lungs expansion/contraction | 2 ways: upward & downward, elevation & depression
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| abdominal muscles | provides additional force for expiration during heavy breathing
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| exernal intercostals | muscles that raise rib cage (inspiration)
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| internal intercostals | muscles that pull down on rib cage (expiration)
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| muscles of inspiration | external intercostals, SCM, serratus anter., scalenes
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| muscles of expiration | internal intercostals, abdom. recti
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| pleura | fluid w/in which lungs "float" & provides lubrication for mvmts of lungs
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| pleural pressure | pressure of fluid in space <-> lung & chest wall normally maintained at slightly negative value
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| lveolar pressure | pressure of air inside alveoli of lung; alv. pres. of O2 & CO2 determined by rate they pass in/out of blood & alveoli (alveolare ventilation)
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| air to flow INTO lungs | pressue inside alveoli need to be less than atmospheric pressure
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| transpulmonary | pressure difference <-> alveolar pressure & pleural pressure
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| elastic forces of lungs | 1/3 of total lung elasticity & mainly due to presence of elastin & collagen fibres; 2/3 try to collapse alveoli by surface tension
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| surfactant | fluid lining alveoli greatly reduce surface tension, helps to reduce amount of pressure required to keep lungs expanded
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| respiration | major limitation to intensity of exercise a person can perform
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| tidal volume | volume of air inspired/expired w/ each normal breath (500 mL)
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| total lung capacity | maximum volume which lungs can be expanded w/ greatest possible effort (5800 mL)
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| alveolar ventilation | rate at which new air reaches gas exchange areas of lungs
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| dead air space | air that never reaches gas exchange areas of lungs (air in nose, pharynx, trachea)
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| cartilage rings | structures help keep trachea & bronchi open allowing easy passage of air thru them
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| bronchioles | no cartilage & is composed of smooth muscle, only kept from collapsing by transpulm. pressure
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| mucus | coats resp. passageways helping to keep the moist & trap small particles
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| nasal cavities | part of resp. passageways first to warm, humidify & filter air
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| turbulent precipitation | larger particles in air filtered by hairs located @ entrance of nostrils
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| alveolar macrophages | removes very small particles settled in alveoli
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| partial pressure | rate of diffusion of each resp. gases directly proportional to pressure caused by each gas alone; exerted when gases dissolved in water or body tissues; greater for oxygen in alveoli than pulm. capillaries
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| carbon dioxide | more soluble in water; by-product as a reaction of oxygen w/ foodstuffs; contributes most to acid-based balance of body fluids
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| respiratory membrane | where gas exchange in lungs must pass thru; comprised of capillary, interstitial space & alveoli wall; rate of mvmt of material thru resp. membrane can be affected by changes to membrane itself (increased thickness/decrease surface area)
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| ventilation of perfusion ratio | balance <-> alveolar ventilation & blood flow
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| deoxygenated blood flow | inadequate VENTILATION to area of lungs receiving adquate blood flow
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| inadequate blood flow to lungs receiving adequate ventilation | oxygen will be breathed back out
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| partial pressure of oxygen | greatest in alveoli, less in blood stream, even less in tissue; lower in capillaries because O2 used by cells to create energy
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| partial pressure of carbon dioxide | greatest in tissue, less in blood, even less in alveoli
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| pressure difference | to move carbon dioxide less than those needed to move oxygen
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| interaction of oxygen with hemoglobin | loose & reversible; binding of oxygen to hemoglobin displaces carbon dioxide, CO2 released from blood stream in lungs because binding of O2 makes hemoglobin a stronger acid
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| arterial blood | saturated w/ 97% oxygen
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| venous blood | saturated w/ 75% oxygen
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| Buffer system | fx of hemoglobin helping maintain oxygen pressure in tissues regardless of fluctuations of oxygen concentration in alveoli
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| carbon anhydrase | enzyme present in accelerated conversion of carbon dioxide & water into carbonic acid
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| bicarbonate | form of carbon dioxide (approx 70%) transported in blood; excess CO2 causes kidneys to release bicarbonate to readjust hydrogen ion concentration; also secreted by pancreas to neutralize stomach acid & pH of chyme
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| medulla & pons | areas of brain stem where respiratory centre mainly located
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| dorsal respiratory group of respirator centre | mainly causes inspiration & generates basic rhythm of respiration
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| ventral respiratory group of respiratory centre | mainly causes expiration & inspiration; inactive during normal quiet breathing, is important when high levels of pulm. vent. required (during exercise)
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| pneumotaxic centre of respiratory centre | mainly controls rate & pattern of breathing; switches off inspiration
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| oxygen | does not have direct effect on resp. centre, mainly acts to control resp. thru peripheral chemoreceptors
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| inspiration | controlled by dorsal resp. group of resp. centre; CO2 & hydrogen ions increase strength of inspiration
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| peripheral chemoreceptors | responds rapidly to excess CO2 at onset of exercise
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| strenuous exercise | up to 20x increase in O2 consumption & CO2 formation --> alveolar ventilation increases, arterial PO2, PCO2 & pH remain the same; increase in resp. mainly due to stimulation by higher brain centre & body mvmt eliciting proprioceptive reflexes
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| smooth muscles | found in wall of GI tract
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| GI muscle fibres | are of smooth muscles; less excitable during sympathetic stimulation; excitable by stretching of muscle
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| enteric nervous system (ENS) | intrinsic nervous system of GI
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| myenteric plexus of enteric nerv. syst | controls mvmts in GI system
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| submucosa | plexus of ENS controls secretion & local blood flow in GI system
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| movements in GI tract | propulsive & mixing
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| peristalsis | basic type of propulsive mvmt in GI, involves formation of contractile ring in gut then moves forward which moves material in front, forward; stimulated by distension
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| mixing | formation of intermittent constrictive contraction every few centimeters along the gut
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| splanchnic circulation | supplies gut, spleen, pancreas & liver
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| portal vein | vessel of which blood from gut, spleen & pancreas flow into liver
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| GI bacterial removal | running of venous blood from GI tract thru sinusoids of liver
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| non-fat / water soluble nutrients absorption | absorbed from gut into blood stream & sent to liver for storage/processing; final products of carb digestion from sm. intestine absorbed into portal blood
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| fat based nutrients absorption | absorbed from gut into lymphatic syst., then into bloodstream by-passing liver
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| blood flow of GI | increases when gut becomes active (after meal); decreased to GI by SNS
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| mucous | for lubrication & protection of GI tract; mainly secreted in esophagus to provide lubrication for swallowing; mucous secreted by stomach has alkaline pH which protect underlying wall from acidic & proteolytic stomach secretions; regulated by local nerv sy
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| trigger of GI secretions | mechanical pressure of food, various hormones & nervous reflexes
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| saliva | contains mucous & digests carbs by ptyalin enzyme; also helps maintain health of oral tissue by washing away / destroying bacteria; released by PNS
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| hydrochloride | needed for activation of pepsinogen into pepsin & thus needed for proper protein digestion in stomach
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| intrinsic factor | a gastric secretion essential for vit B12 absorption in small intestine
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| stomach | secretes hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, gastrin & mucous
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| hydrochloric acid | stimulated by gastrin & histamine
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| substances released when meat or protein foods enter stomach | Gastrin -> histamine -> HCl -> pepsin
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| chyme | in duodenum, main stimulus for pancreatic secretions
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| pancreas | secretes digestive enzymes for carbs, protein & fat; also secretes bicarbonate; secretion stimulated by acetylcholine, cholecystokinin & secretin; secretes amylase enzyme after chyme enters duodenum for starch digestion completion (15-30 min)
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| secretin | secreted by upper small intestine in response to presence of stomach acid which causes pancreas to release bicarbonate ions
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| cholecystokinin (CCK) | released in duodenum in presence of fats, protein digestion & long-chain fatty acids in chyme which in turn, triggers release of bile
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| cholesterol | used to make bile salts
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| small intestine | responsible for nutrient absorption
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| cellulose | undigestible form of carbs by humans
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| ptyalin | salivary enzyme involving carb digestion in mouth
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| enterocytes | enzymes splitting various disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose)
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| pepsin | secreted by stomach important for protein digestion
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| protein digestion | must be in di & tri peptides &/or amino acids before being absorbed into enterocytes of sm. intest.
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| pepsidase | digests peptides into amino acids then absorbed into bloodstream
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| emulsification | critical for proper fat digestion, involves fat globules broken into wee sizes; bile is emulsifier
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| sodium absorption | creates electrochemical gradient across intestinal epithelial cells which promotes chloride absorption
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|
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| sodium co-transport | process which most products of protein digestion is absorbed; galactose & glucose require sodium as co-transp.; fructose does not
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|
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| colon bacteria | capable of producing vit B12, thiamine, riboflavin & vit K
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|
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