Cell Division and Replication
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| What is the continuity of life based upon? | Based on the reproduction of cells or cell division
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| How do unicellular organisms reproduce? | By cell division
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| What is an example of a unicellular organism? | Amoebo, bacteria...etc.
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| What are the three things multicellular organisms depend on cell division for? | Development from a fertilized cell, growth, repair
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| What does cell division result in? | Genetically identical daughter cells
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| What do cells do before they divide? | They ensure that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of DNA; they duplicate DNA
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| Genome: | Cell's endowment of DNA
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| Prokaryotic Genome: | Single long DNA molecule
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| Eukaryotic genome: | Has a number of DNA molecules
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| What is the DNA in a human cell: | 2 m DNA, 250,000 greater than diameter
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| Where is all the DNA in a cell located? | In chromosomes
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| Every eukaryotic species has how many chromosomes? | A characteristic number
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| Somatic Cells: | All body cells except reproductive cells
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| Reproductive cells and what's anothe rname for it: | Ova, sperm, eggs, (gametes)
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| What many chromosomes are in somatic cells? | 46 chromosomes (2 sets of 23) (1 inherited from each parent)
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| Chromatin: | Is in eukaryotic chromosomes and is a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division
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| How many chromosomes are in gametes? | 23 chromosomes
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| What does the cell do to prepare for division? | DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense
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| What does each duplicated chromosome have? | 2 sister chromatids
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| What does each chromatid contain? | An identical DNA molecule
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| How are chromatids (INITIALLY) attached to cell? | adhesive proteins
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| What does eukaryotic cell divison consist of? | Mitosis, and cytokenisis
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| Mitosis: | The division of the nucleus or dna
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| cytokinesis: | The division of the cytoplasm
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| What is meiosis and what about the daughter cells in this process? | When sex cells are produced after a reduction in chromosome number--the daughet cells are going to be non-identical and have only 23 chromosomes
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| Where, specifically (in males and females) does meiosis occur? | gonads--ovaries and testes
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| Fertilization: | Fuses two gametes together and returns the chromosome number to 46
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| What does the cell cycle consist of? | Mitotic phase or M phase, and interphase
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| Mitotic phase: | Usually the shortest part of the cell cycle where mitosis and cytokinesis occurs
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| Interphase (what percent of cell cycle does it cover?) | accounts of 90% of cell cycle
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| what does Interphase consists of? Which phases? | Gap 1 phase, synthesis phase, and gap two phase
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| What occurs in the S phase? | chromosomes are duplicated
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| How does the cell grow in interphase? | By producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria and ER
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| What are the five stages of mitosis? | Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
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| What happens in the latter stages of Mitosis? | cytokinesis overlaps with them to complete the mitotic phase
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| What happens to the chromatic fibers in prophase? | They become more tightly coiled, condensing into discrete chromosomes observable with a light microscope
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| What happens to the nucleoli in prophase? | it disappears
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| How does the chromosome appear in prophase? | as 2 identical sister chromatids joined together
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| What begins to form in prophase? | mitotic spindles, composed of the centrosomes and the microtubles that extend from them
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| Asters: | Radial arrays of shorter microtubules extending from the centrosome
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| What happens to the centrosomes in prophase? | They move away from each other--propelled by the lengthening microtubules between them
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| What happens to the nuclear envelope in prometaphase? | it fragments
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| What can the microtubules of the spindle do in prometaphase? | They can invade the nuclear area and interact with the chromosomes which have become more condensed
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| What do the microtubules do in prometaphase? | Extend from each centrosome toward the middle of the cell
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| What does each of the two sister chromatids have in prometaphase? | has a kinetochore
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| Kinetochore: | Specialized protein structure located at the centromere
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| What do some of the microtubules do in prometaphase? | attach to kinetochores to become (Kinetochore micro) and jerk the chromosomes back and forth
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| Nonkinetochore microtubules do what in prometaphase? | interact with those from the opposite pole of the spindle
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| What is the longest phase in mitosis and how long does it take? | metaphase (20mins)
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| Where are the centrosomes located in metaphase? | opposite ends of the cell
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| Where do the centrosomes gather in metaphse? | At the metaphase plate
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| what is a metaphase plate? | an imaginary plane that is equal distance between the spindle's 2 poles
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| What lies on this plate? | chromosome's centromeres
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| For each chromosome in metaphase, what about the kinetochores of the sister chromatids | They are attached to the kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles
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| Spindle: | Entire apparatus of microtubules, it is called spindle because of its shape
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| What is the shortest phase of mitosis? | Anaphase (few mins)
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| When does the anaphase begin? and what happens to the chromatids at this point? | When two sister chromatids of each pair suddenly part-each chromatid then becomes a full fledged chromosome
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| What happens as kinetochore microtubules shorten in anaphase? | the two liberated chromosomes begin moving to opposite ends of the cell
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| When does the cell elongate in anaphase? | When the nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen
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| At the end of anaphase, what do the two ends have? | equal and complete collections of chromosomes
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| What begins to form in telophase? | 2 daughter nuclei begin to form and the nuclear envelope develops from fragments
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| What happens to the chromosomes in telophase? | they become less condensed
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| What is the specific definition of Mitosis, and when does it end? | The division of 1 nucleus into two identical nuclei ends at mitosis
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| What is usually underway by late telophse? | The division of cytoplasm--so that the two daughter cells appear shortly after the end of mitosis
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| What does a cleavage furrow do in animal cells: | pinches the cell in two and initiates cytokinesis
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| What happens in plant cells, during cytokinesis? | a cell plate forms
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| The cell cycle is regulated by what? | a molecular control system
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| The frequency of cell division varies with | the type of cell
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| These cell cycle differences result from what? | regulation at the molecular level
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| How are the sequential events of the cell cycle directed? | by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a clock
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| This clock has specific checkpoints and what happens at those points? | the cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received
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| What are the two types of regulatory proteins involved in the cell cycle control? | Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (phosphorylation)
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| Where do the protein kinases give the go-ahead signals? | at the G1 and G2 points
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| What must be done to the kinases? | The kinases must be activated even though they are at costant concentrations in the cell
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| How are the kinases activated? | by the attachment of a cyclin
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| cyclins | Get their name from their cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell
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| What is important to note about cyclins in the cell? | 1) Fluctuate during cell cycle
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| What was the first CDK complex to the discovered? | MPF--maturation promoting factor or "m-phase promoting factor
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| What does the MPF do? | Triggers the cell's passage past the G2 checkpoint into M phase
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| Why are cyclin CDK complexes activated? | So this complex can phosphorylate other proteins and send a cell into the mitotic phase (cell division)
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| What is important about CDK and cyclin: | CDK is inactive unless cyclin is bound to it
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| REMEMBER SLIDE 36 | PRINT SLIDE
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| Both internal and external signals | control the cell cycle checkpoints
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| growth factors | stimulate cells to divide
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| density-dependent inhibition | crowded cells stop growing
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| anchorage dependent cell growth | cells must be attached to some substratum in order for them to divide
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| What is used to hold the anchorage | plastic
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| What do cancer cells exhibit (or not) | neither density-dependant inhibition nor anchorage dependence (uncontrolled)
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| Cancer cells don't respond to | Don't respond normally to body's control mechanisms
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| Cancer cells divide | out of control
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| What does the cancer cell division cause/ | a tumor
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| When does cancer begin? | when a single cell in a tissue undergoes transformation
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| When a transformed cell evades destruction | In can divide and form a tumor
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| Benign tumor: | when cancer cells remain at the original site; they don't cause problems and are simply removed via surgery
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| Malignant tumors: | Become invasive...impair the function of organs, they divide quickly and form tumors or metastasize
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| metastasis: | spread of cancer cells to distant locations from original site
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| When the cancer cells leave the benign location | they can spread and create more tumors in other parts of the body (secondary tumors)
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| How are living organism distinguished? | By their ability to reproduce their own kind
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| Heredity: | Transmission of traits from one generation to the next
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| Variation | Shows the offspring differ somewhat in appearance from parents and siblings
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| Genetics | the scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation
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| How can genetics be studied? What are the three ways? | Organism, cell, molecule
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| How do offsprings acquire genes from parents? | inheriting chromosomes
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| Genes are two things...what? | Units of heredity and segments of DNA
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| Each gene in an organism's DNA is located where? | in a specific locus (location) on a certain chromosomes
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| What is an example of something that undergoes asexual reproduction? | Hydra
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| What is asexual reproduction? | One parent produces gentically indentical offspring by MITOSIS
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| Sexual reproduction: | When two parents' offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from two parents
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| What alternates in sexual life cycle? | Fertilization and meiosis
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| A life cycle is what? | Generation to generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism from conception to production of its own offspring
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| Karyotype: | An ordered visual representation of the chromosomes in a cell
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| Homologous chromosomes (3 things about them, third thing is another name for them) | two chromosomes composing a pair, have the same characteristcs, autosomes
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| Sex chromosomes: | Distinct from each other in their characteristics
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| How are sex chromosomes represented? | X and Y
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| What sex chromosomes do you need to have to be female...Male? | XX XY
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| What is used to represent the number of chromosmes in a single set? | n
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| what's another name for a diploid cell? | Somatic cell
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| Haploid cells: | one set of chromosomes
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| Diploid cell | has two sets of each of its chromosomes,
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| : give a representation of chromosomes in humans | 2n = 46
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| What are examples of haploid cells? | Sperm, egg, gametes
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| In humans, give an example of the representation of chromosomes in gametes | 23 n
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| What happens at sexual maturity? | ovaries and testes produce haploid gametes by meiosis
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| In fertilization | these gametes, sperm and ovum, fuse, forming a diploid zygote
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| Zygote | develops into an adult organism
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| Meiosis reduces: | the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
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| what are the two sets of divisions of meiosis? | Meiosis I and II
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| Meiosis I reduces what, with respect to chromosomes | reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid (46) to haploid (23)
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| Meiosis II produces how many haploid daughter cells | four
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| What's important about mitosis: | conserves the number of chromosome sets, produces daughter cells gentically identical to their parent cell and to each other
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| How many events are unique to meiosis, and where do they occur? | 3 events, occur in meiosis one
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| What are the three eventss? | Synapsis and crossing over, tetrads on the metaphase plate, seperation of homologues
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| Where does the first event take place? | Prophase 1: homologous chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic info
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| Where does the second event take place? | metaphase I: paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads) are positioned on the metaphase plates
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| Where does the third event take place? | at anaphase I, homologous pairs move toward opposite poles of the cell; in anaphase II, the sister chromatids seperate
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| What contributes to evolution? | genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles
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| What produces genetic variation? | reshuffling of gentic material in meiosis
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| What are recombinant chromosomes and when are they produced? what do they carry? | new chromosomes, they are produced in chrosing over, they carry genes derived from two different parents
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| What will the fusion of gametes provide? | produces a zygote with any of about 64 trillion diploid combinations
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| Where are genes located? | Chromosomes
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| How does mendalian inheritance have its physical basis? | in the behavior of chromosomes
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| What accounts for Mendel's laws? | behavior of chromosmes during meiosis
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| What are mendel's two laws made of? | segregation and independant assortment
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| What accounts for the segregation and independent assortment of teh allelles for seed color and shape? | Arrangement of chromosmes at metaphase I of meiosis
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| Each cell that undergoes meiosis in a F1 plant produce how many kinds of gametes? | Two
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| F1 plants produce equal numbers of how many kinds of gametes...and why? | Four kinds, and because the alternative chromosome arrangements at metaphase I are equally likely
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| Peas have how many chromosome pairs? | Seven
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| What did thomas hung morgan provide? | convincing evidence that chromosomes are the location of mendel's heritable factors
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| What did morgan work with & why (3 reasons)? | Fruit flies, because they breed at a high rate, a new generation every two weeks, they only have four pairs of chromosomes
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| Wild type: | Normal phenotypes
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| What did he call alternative traits to the wild type? | mutant phenotypes
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| What does morgan's experiment with white eyes and red eyes tell us? Which chromosome? | Sex-linked atraits, this was the first evidence indicating that a specific gene associated with a specific chromosome exists (X-chromosome)
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| Sister Chromatid: | Replicated forms of chromosome joined together by the centromere and separated druing mitosis or meiosis II.
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| Loci or location: | Location of a gene on a chromosome
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| Chromatid: | Each of the two daughter strands joined at centromere during Mtiosis or Meiosis
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| What laws do chromosomes follow during meisosis? | Laws of mendelian genetics
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| What does the segregation law imply? | Two allelles of a gene separate during meiosis (gamete formation), so that a sperm or an egg carries only one allele of each pair.
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| What if 2 alleles of a gene are different? | Dominant over recessive
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| True-breeding: | Having the same two alleles (homozygous)
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| What doeas the second law imply? | Each pair of alleles segregates into gametes independently of other pairs
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| What is the most lethal genetic disease in the U.S.? | Cystic Fibrosis
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| Cellular level of lethal disease? | Lack working chloride channel in plasma membrane of certain cells (lungs, G1 tract), so choride ions outside the cell increases, affects osmosis. Mucous that coates cell becomes thicker, favors infections
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| Character: | hertitable features, flower color, height, or lung function
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| Trait: | A variant of character, purple or white, tall or short, function or dysfunctional
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| Phenotype: | Observable
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| Genotype: | Entire genetic identity that is not observable
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| Homozygous: | two identical alleles
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| Heterozygous: | Unidentical alleles
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| Dominant: | Overpowers other traits
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| Recessive: | Masked
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