Cell Resp. and Photosynthesis
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| What are the three metabolic stages of cell respiration? | 1. Glycolysis 2. Citric cycle 3. Oxidative phosphorylation
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| Define Cellular Respiration | A metabolic process that requires oxygen
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| Define Glycolysis: | Cells get energy from glucose through glycolysis to produce starting material for citric acid cycle
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| Does glycolysis require oxygen? | No
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| Glycolysis and Citric Acid clycle break down what? | Breakdown glucose and other organic fuels
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| Where does glycolysis occur? | cytosol
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| How does glycolysis begin the degradation process? | by breakiing down glucose into 2 pyruvates
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| Where does the citric acid cycle occur? | Mitochondiral matrix
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| How does the citric acid cycle complete the breakdown of glucose? | By oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to CO2.
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| What does the CO2 from the citric acid cycle represent? | fragments of oxidized organic molecules.
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| What kind of reactions are included in the CAC and Glycolysis? | Redox reactions
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| What happens in the reactions of CAC and Glycolysis? | Dehydrogenous enzymes transfer electrons from substrates to NAD+, forming NADH
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| Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur? | In the inner membrane of the mitochondria
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| What are the two processes of oxidative phosprylatioN? | Electron transport and chemiosmosis
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| What percent of the ATP generated by the cell occurs in Oxidative phossphorylatioN? | 90%
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| What about the other percentage of ATP generated by the cell? Where does it come from? | it is made directly in a few reactions of glycolysis and the CAC by substrate level phosphorylation
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| How does the ATP generated by CAC and Glycolysis form? | Direct enzymatic transfer of phosphate group from an organic substrate to ADP
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| Oxidative phos: | Electron transport chain accepts electrons from the breakdown products of the first two stages (mostly NADH) and passes electrons from one molecule to another
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| What happens to the elctrons of oxidative phos at the end of the chain? | Electrons are combined with oxygen and hydrogen ions to form water
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| In each step of the chain, how is the energy output stored? | In a form the mitochondria can use to make ATP
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| What is inputed in glycolysis? | 1. 6 carbone sugar (glucose) split into 2, 3 carbon sugars
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| What happens to the smaller sugars in glycolysis? | oxidized and their remiaining atoms rearrange to form 2 pyruvates
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| What is the output of glycolysis? | 2 molecules of pyruvate
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| What is the energy investment phase of glycolysis? | The cell spends or used ATP-
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| Energy payoff phase? | ATP produced by substrate level phosphorylation and NAD+ is reduced to NADH by electrons relased from oxidation of food
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| What much ATP is outputted per glucose? | 2 ATP and 2 NADH
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| What does phosphorylation do in glycolysis? | Traps glucose inside cell
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| What's another name for pyruvate? | Pyruvic acid
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| summarize the first step of pathways of glycolysis | 2 ATPs are required
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| Second step of glycolysis? | 2 NAD makes 2 NADH
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| Third step | Two ADP+2pyruvates=2 ATP
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| Another name for Citric acid cycle | Kreb's cycle
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| What does cac complete? | Completes oxidation of organic molecules
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| What happens when oxygen is present in glycolysis? | chemical energy in pyruvate and NADH is extracted by the cac and oxidative phos
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| CAC with oxygen | two pyruvate molecules from glycolysis enter the mitochondria via active transport--enzymes of CAC complete oxidation of organic fuel
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| What happens to the pyruvate in the mitochondria? | Converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A
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| What does acetyl CoA do? | links the CAcycle to glycolysis
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| What does the CAC function as? | A metabolic furnace that oxidizes organic fuel made from pyruvate
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| What is the input in CAC? | Acetyl CoA
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| What does CAC produce? | 1 ATP 3 NADH 1 FADH2
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| What does each step of the CAC require? | catalyzed by a specific enzyme
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| What is the first step of the CAC? | 2 carbons enter in the relatively reduced form of acetyl group
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| What are the second and third steps of CAC? | two different carbons leave in the completely oxidized form of CO2
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| What is the fourth step of CAC? | The acetyl group joins the cycle by combining with oxaloacetate--citrate
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| What are the last seven steps of CAC? | To decompose citrate back to oxaloacetate
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| How does NADH form/ | In steps 3,4,8, 3 NAD+ reduced to 3 NADH
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| How does FADH2 form? | Step 6, electrons are transferred to FAD to make FADH2
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| How does ATP form in CAC? | GTP is formed by substrate level phosphorylation of GDP (step 5), which is used to make ATP
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| How does the Electron transport chain get electrons? | After NADH and FADH2 are produced by CAC, they relay electrons extracted from food to it
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| NADH and FADH2 supply what? | Energy to phophorylate ADP to make ATP
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| Chemiosmosis? | Couples ETC to ATP synthesis in oxidative phophorylation
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| What happens to the electrons from NADH and FADH2? | Lose nergy in several steps
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| What happens at the end of the ETC? | Electrons passed to oxygen to make water
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| Where does the ETC occur and what is it made of? | Linked series of proteins in the cristea of mitochondria
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| What are the protiens made of? | FMN, coenzyme Q, and cytochromes
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| What happens to the proteins as they accept electrons? | They are reduced, As it gives electrons to next protein, it is oxidized; exothermic reaction
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| Does ETC make ATP? | NO, not directly?
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| What is ETC's function? | To ease the fall of electrons from food to oxygen
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| How does it ease the fall of electrons? | Breaking a large free-energy drop into a series of smaller steps that release manageble amounts of free energy
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| What does the mitochondria do after ETC? | Couples ET and energy release to ATP synthesis by chemiosmosis
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| ATP Synthase | Enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphates
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| how does ATP synthase work? | Uses existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis
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| what is the gradient in ATP synthase? | difference in proton gradient
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| What does electron transfer cause in chemiosmosis? | protein complexes to pump hydrogen ion from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space
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| What about the resulting hydrogen ion gradient? | Stores energy, drives chemiosmosis in ATP synthase, is refered to as a proton motive force
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| How does ETC work? What is the first step? | A rotor within the membrane spins clockwise when H+ flows past it down the gradient
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| Second step of ETC? | stator anchored in the membrane holds the knob stationary.
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| 3rd ETC step? | A rod (for “stalk”) extending into the knob also spins, activating catalytic sites in the knob.
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| 4th ETC Step? | Three catalytic sites in the stationary knob join inorganic
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| Chemiosmosis? | Energy coupling mechanism that uses energy in the form of H+ gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work
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| What powers Chemiosmosis? | flow of H+ back across membrane
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| In which sequence does cell respiration flow? | Glucose, NADH, ETC (oxidative phosphorylation), Proton pump, and then to ATP
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| How much ATP is produced by oxidative phospohyrlatioN? | 32-34
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| What is the maximum amount of ATP produced per glucose? | 36-38
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| Fermentation? | Enables some cells to produce ATP without oxygen
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| What does fermentation consist of? | Reactions that regenrate NAD+, and glycolysis
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| What happens in alcohol fermentation? | pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps, one of which releases carbon dioxide
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| What happens in lactic acid fermentation? | pyruvate reduced directly to NADH to form lactate, occurs when we breakdown sugar faster than we can get oxygen from blood to go through cellular respiration
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| What is a similarity between fermentation and cellular respiration? | use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and other organic fuels to make pyruvate
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| How do they differ? | In their final electron accepter
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| What is the key juncture that determines what happens after glucose is broken down? | pyruvate
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| Does the oxidative breakdown of glucose occur seperatly? | No
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| Where do most of our calories come from? | fats, proteins, sucrose, and startch(polysachrides)
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| Catobolic pathways do what for electrons? | funnel electrons from many kinds of organic molecules into cellular respiration
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| What happens in the digestive tract? | starch is hydrolyzed to glucose--->glycolysis--->CAC
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| What happens in liver and muscle cells? | glycogen is hydrolyzed to glucose between meals-->glycolysis-->CAC
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| how does sucrose get broken down? | Gets broken down into glucose and other monosachs-->glycolysis-->CAC
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| When can proteins be used for fuel in cell respiration? | they must be digested to their building blocks, amino acids
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| What happens to the amino acids we consume in our diet? | are used by our cells to build new proteins
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| What happens when too many amino acids exist? | They are converted by enzymes into intermediates of glycolysis and CAC
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| Deamination: | A process where the amino groups (nitrate) of amino acids are removied
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| How is the amino group extreted? | Urea, ammonia
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| What can catabolism do in the cell (harvesting?) | can harvest energy stored in fasts from food or from storage cells in the body
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| What are fats digested into? | glycerol-->glyceraldehyde-3phosphate (which can enter glycolysis as an intermediate)
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| What else are fats digested into? | Fatty acids--most of energy in fat comes from fatty acids
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| Beta oxidation: | Breaks down the fatty acids into 2 carbon fragments that enter CAC as Acetyl CoA
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| Which is the best type of fuel that enters the body? | Fats, (it makes twice as much energy as 1 gram Carbs)
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| Do all organic molecules of food become oxidized to make ATP? | NO
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| What else does food provide? | A carbon skeleton that cells need to make their own molecules
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| What are anabolic pathways also known as? | Biosynthesis
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| What is an example of when organic monomers obtained from digestion are used to synthesize molecules? | Amino acids from hydrolysis of proteins in food--into a cell's own proteins
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| Where doe the small molecules the body builds on come from? | food, or glycolysis or CAC
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| What is an example of an intermediate formed in CAC that is diverted inrto anabolic pathways? | Humans make about half of the 20 amino acids in proteins by modifying compounds shuttled out of the CAC
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| Feedback mechanisms: | Regulate cellular respiration
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| Feedback inhibition: | The end product inhibits at starting step of pathway
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| How does the cell control catabolic pathways? | if a cell is working hard and its ATP concentration drops, respiration speeds up to make more ATP
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| What is regulation mainly based upon? | Controling the activity of enzymes at strategic points in the catabolic pathway
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| Phsphofructokinase | An important switch that controls catabolism speed (pacemaker) Enzyme that catalyzes step 3 of glycolysis,
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| Photosynthesis: | process that converts solar energy into chemical energy
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| Producers of biosphere: | Self feeders like plants and autotrophs
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| Photoautotrophs: | use energy of sunlight ot make organic molecules from water and Carbon Dioxide
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| Photosynthesis: | occurs in plants, algae, protists, prokaryotes
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| Heterotrophs: | Consumers, obtain materia from other organisms
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| Chloroplasts: | Sites of photosynthesis in lants
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| Chlorophyll: | Green pigment located within chloroplasts--give color
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| Mesophyll: | Tissue in the interior of the leaf
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| Stomata: | Microscopic poers that allow CO2 to enter the leaf and allow oxygen to exit
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| Veins: | Water absorbed by the roots is delivered to the leaves by the veins
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| what are the major sites of Photosynthesis: | leaves of plants
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| Chloroplasts and what do they contain? | Organelles in which photosynthesis occurs, and contain thylakoids and grana
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| What is the overall equation of photosynthesis? | 6CO2+6H20+light energy-->C6H12O6+6 O2
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| What is important to note about the photosynthesis equation, in relation to the cellular respiration equation? | they are opposites
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| In plant cells: | Both cell respiration and photosynthesis occurs
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| Chloroplasts split water into: | Into hydrogen and oxygen, incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into sugar molecules
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| Cell respiration: | energy is released from sugar when electrons associated with hydrogen are transported by carriers to oxygen--forming water as a by-product
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| Water is split: | Electrons are transfered along with hydrogen ions (h+) from water to CO2, reducing itto sugar
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| What happens to the electrons as they more from water to sugar? | Increase in potential energy
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| The transfer of electrons from water to sugar requires... | Energy, provided by light
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| Photosynthesis is what sort of a process (reaction) | Redox, water is oxidized, carbon dioxide is reduced
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| What is the first stage of photosynthesis? | Light reactions--occur in thylakoids of chloroplasts
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| What is the second stage of photosynthesis? | Calvin cycle--occurs in stroma
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| Light reactions: | The steps that convert solar energy to chemical energy
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| What are the steps involved in light reactions: | Split water, relase oxygen, produce ATP, and form NADPH
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| Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives | a transfer of electrons and hydrogen from water (H2O) to an acceptor called NADP+
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| NadP+: | Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate--temporarily stores the energized electrons
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| Light reactions of photosynthesis | give of O2 as a byproduct
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| Light reactions use solar energy...to? | Use solar energy to reduce NADP+-->NADPH, by adding a pair of electrons along with H+
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| Light reactions also generate ATP, How? | By using chemiosmosis to power the addition of a phosphate group to ADP--phosphorylation
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| Light energy is initially converted to chemical energy in the form of two compounds, what are they? | NADPH: A source of energized electrons, and ATP: Energy Source of all cells
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| Galvin Cycle: | Forms sugar from carbon dioxide using ATP for energy and NADPH for reducing power
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| How does the calvin cycle begin? | by incorpporating CO2 from the air--> into organic molecules already present in chloroplasts
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| Carbon fixation: | Initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds
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| What happens after carbon fixation? | The calvin cycle reduces the fixed carbon to carbohydrate by the addition of electrons--power for this is provided by NADPH from light reactions
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| How can the calvin cycle make sugar? | With the help of NADPH and ATP produced by light reactions
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| Calvin cycle is a light requiring one? | No, it's a dark reaction
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| Chloroplasts use light energy to make.. | sugar by coordinating the two stages of photosynthesis
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| Light reactions convert | solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
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| Light: | A form of energy known as electromagnetic energy or electromagentic radiation
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| Electromagentic energy travels in: | Rythmic waves like thos created by dropping a pebble into a pond
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| Wavelength: | Is the distance between the crests of waves and determines the type of electromagnetic energy
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| The visible spectrum includes what two things/ | Includes the colors of light we can see, and the wavelengths that drive photosynthesis
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| Pigments: | Are the substances that absorb visible light (Light receptors)
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| Chlorophyll A: | Main photosynthetic pigment
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| Chlorophyll b: | An accessory pigment
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| Other pigments: | Absorb different pigments of light and pass the enrgy to chloro A
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| What happens when a pigment absorbs light? | Goes from a ground state to an unstable, excited state
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| When a solution of chlorophyll is illuminated? | It will fluoresce, giving off light and heat
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| When light is broken, we get a: | Photon
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| A photosystem is composed of a: | Reaction center surrounded by a number of light harvesting complexes
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| Each light harvesting comples consists of | Pigments( chlrophyll a and b and carotenolds bound to proteins
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| In a diagram, the light complexes are: | The little circles in the cell
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| A photosystem: | A light harvesting complex consisting of pigment molecules bound to particular proteins that funnel energy of photons of light to the reaction center
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| When a reaction center's chlorophyll molecule absorbs energy: | one of its electrons gets bumped up to a primary electron acceptor
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| The thylakoid membrane: | Is populated by two types of photosystems: PS1 and PSII
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| Which functions first? PSI or II? | II
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| what is the characteristic reaction center? | A particular kind of primary electron acceptor next to a pair of special chlorophyll a molecules associated with specific proteins
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| Noncyclic electron flow? | Primary pathway of energy transformation in the light reactions
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| Chloropyhll A: | Will get absorption of e-will be absorbed here, and O2 will be given off
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| Chain of proetins will join | PSII to I
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| A Photon of light strikes a pigment molecule in a | light harvesting complex and is relayed to other pigment molecules until it reaches 1 of the 2 p680 chlorophyll a molecules in the PSII reaction center--It excited one p680 e-s to a higher energy state
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| primary electron acceptor | captures excited electron
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| Water is split into | two electrons, 2 hydrogens, and one oxygen
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| How does the photoexcited electron pass from the primary electron acceptor? | Via the ETC
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| Light harvesting complex to the PSI reaction center get light energy, and this does what? | Excited the electron of one of the 2 p700 chlorophyll a molecules
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| What happens to the photoexcited E-: | Gets captured by PS I's primary electron acceptor, creating a hole in p700
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| How is the hole filled? | Electron reached bottom of ETC
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| The protein ferredoxin(fd) | serves to help pass photoexcited electrons through second electron transport chain
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| NADP+ serves to: | Transport electrons from Fd to NADP+
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| To make NADPH | Two electrons are required to reduce NADP+
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| Light reactions use solar power to generate ATP and NADPH, and they provide, | chemical energy and reducing power to the sugar making reaction so fthe calvin cycle
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