Histology Questions Digestive, Blood, Exo and Endocrine Glands
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| What is the overall function of the digest system? | Converts food into raw materials that help build and fuel our body's cells.
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| What are the two essential ingredients involved in metabolism? | 1. Oxygen2. Organic Molecules
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| What are the components of the digestive system? | 1. Alimentary Canal2. Accessory Organs (teeth, tongue, gallbladder, liver, salivary glands, pancreas)
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| List and describe the four basic layers of the alimentary canal. | 1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis Externa4. Serosa
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| Mucosa | The epithelium that lines the alimentary canal, the deeper loose connective tissue called lamina propria, and the muscularis mucosae that surrounds the CT.
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| Submucosa | Dense, irregular fibroelastic CT surrounding the mucosa.
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| Muscularis Externa | Surrounds the submucosa. Thick muscular layer that is responsible for peristalsis. Smooth muscle.
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| Serosa | Surrounds muscularis externa and is made up of thin connective tissue.
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| List and describe six essential activities involved in digestion. | 1. Ingestion 2. Propulsion 3. Mechanical Digestion 4. Chemical Digestion 5. Absorption 6. Defacation
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| Ingestion | Taking food into the digestive tract, usually via the mouth.
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| Propulsion | Process that moves food through the alimentary canal, includes swallowing and peristalsis.
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| Mechanical Digestion | Phsyically prepares food for chemical digestion by enzymes.
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| Chemical Digestion | Process in which food molecules are broken down into their monomers by enzymes secreted into the alimentary canal. Begins in the mouth and ends in the small intestines.
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| Absorption | When digested products pass from the GI tract to the blood and lymph system through active or passive transport. Most absorption takes place in the small intestines.
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| Defacation | Elimination of indigestable substances by the body via the anus in the form of feces.
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| What are the specific types of mucosa in the oral cavity? | 1. masticatory mucosa 2. lining mucosa 3. specialized mucosa.
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| What are the three regions of the lips? | 1. skin aspect 2. vermillion zone 3. mucous aspect
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| Dentin | Forms the bulk of the tooth; composed of 70% calcium hydroxyapatite and is the second hardest substance in the body.
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| Enamel | Overlies the dentin of the crown; composed of 96% calcium hydroxyapatite and is the hardest substance in the body.
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| Cementum | Overlies the dentin of the roots; composed of about 50% calcium hydroxyapatite and 50% organic matrix and bound water. It is approximately as hard as bone.
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| Periodontal Ligament | Holds teeth in the alveolus.
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| Alveolus | Bony socket in which the tooth is suspended via the periodontal ligament.
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| Gingiva | Gums
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| Where is the palate located and what composes it? | Separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and is composed of ulva and hard and soft palates.
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| What is the difference between lingual papillae and the taste buds? | The liqual papillae are located on the anterior portion of the tongue and the taste buds are located on the posterior portion of the tongue.
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| What are the taste sensations? | Sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami.
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| What are the three mucosal layers of the esophagus? | 1. epithelium 2. lamina propria 3. muscularis mucosa
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| Hiatal Hernia | The low pH of the gastric juice causes changes in the epithelium of the esophagus due to reflux.
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| Barrett's Syndrome | Constant reflux can cause a premalignant condition in which the stratified squamous epithelium changes to simple columnar.
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| What is Ghrelin? | Hormone that induces hunger sensation and modulates relaxtion of stomach muscles.
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| What is so damn special about the mucosal epithelium of the stomach? | Prevents stomach from autodigestion.
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| List the 6 cell types of the lamina propria. | 1. Surface cells 2. Mucous neck cells 3. Regenerative cells 4. Parietal cells 5. Chief cells (zymogenic cells) 6. DNES
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| What is gastic juice? | water, HCL, enzymes, and mucous
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| What are the 3 phases of gastric production? | Cephalic (caused by psychological factors), Gastric (happens when food is introduced to the stomach), and Intestinal (secretion due to presence of food in sm. intestine.
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| What are the regions of the small intestine? | Duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
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| What are the modifications found in these regions? | Pilicae circularis, villi, microvilli.
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| What are the surface absorbtive cells? | Tall cells that function in absorbtion of water and nutrients. Goblet Cells (mucous), DNES cells (paracrine and endocrine hormones), and M cells (phagocytic).
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| What are the parts of colon? | Secum, colon, rectum, anus.
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| How do epithelial cells form glands? | They leave the surface where they developed and penetrate into the underlying CT, these cells manufacture a basal lamina around themselves.
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| What are the two major groups of glands? | Endocrine (ductless) and Exocrine (ducts).
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| What are the methods of classifying exocrine glands? | 1. Nature of scretion 2. Mode of secretion 3. Number of cells.
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| Mucous Glands | Produced by goblet cells. Certain salivary glands are mucous glands.
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| Serous Glands | Enzyme rich, watery fluid. Pancreas.
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| Mucous Mixed | Mucous and serous secretions.
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| What are the three methods of exocrine secretion? | 1. Merocrin 2. Apocrine 3. Holocrine
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| Merocrine | Products are secreted via exocytosis.
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| Apocrine | Apical portion of the cell pinches off and is secreted.
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| Holocrine | Whole cell is secreted, disinegrates.
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| What are unicellular exocrine glands? | The simplest form of exocrine glands. Ex: Goblet Cell
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| What are multicellular exocrine glands? | Organized clusters of secretory cells. Simple: ducts do not branch. Compound: Ducts branch.
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| What are hormones? | Chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and are delivered by the blood to target cells.
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| How are hormones classified? | 1. Protein - water soluable. 2. Protein based - mostly water soluable. 3. Steroid - Mostly lipid soluable.
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| What are the types of hormone receptors? | Membrane receptors and Intracellular receptors.
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| Where is the pituitary gland located? | Sits on the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus.
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| How is the pituitary gland divided? | 1. Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis) 2. Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
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| What is the relationship of the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary? | The anterior pituitary is controlled by the hypothalamus.
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| What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary? | 1. ACTH 2. TSH 3.FSH 4.LH 5.PRL 6.GH
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| ACTH | adrenocorticotropic hormone
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| TSH | thyroid stimulating hormone
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| FSH | follicle stimulating hormone
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| LH | luteinizing hormone
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| PRL | prolactin
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| GH | growth hormone or somatotropin
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| ACTH target | Adrenal cortex
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| TSH target | thyroid
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| FSH target | gonads
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| LH target | gonads
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| PRL target | mammary glands
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| GH target | bone, muscles, adipose tissue
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| Where are the adrenal glands located? | On the superior poles of the kidneys.
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| What are the hormones of the adrenal cortex? | 1. Mineralocorticoids 3. Glucocorticoids 3. Androgens
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| Addison's Disease | Decreased secretion of ACTH and results in death if not treated by steroids.
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| Cushing's Disease | Small tumors in the anterior pituitary that lead to an increase of an output of ACTH = the overproduction of cortisol.
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| Where is the thyroid gland located? | Anterior portion of the neck.
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| What are the two types of thyroid cells? | Follicular and Parafollicular Cells.
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| Follicular Produces: | T3 and T4
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| Parafollicular Produces: | Calcitonin
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| What is the importance of T3 and T4? | They regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. They are also required for normal maturation of the nervous system.
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| What does a deficiency of thyroid hormone cause? | Hypothyroidism - Myxedema in adulthood and Cretenism in infancy.
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| What does an excess of thyroid hormone cause? | Graves' Disease
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| What does Iodine have to do with T3 and T4 production? | Iodine regulates the synthesis of T3 and T4?
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| What is a goiter? | Enlargement of the thyroid gland, due to insufficient intake of iodine.
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| Dicuss the effect of FSH and LH on the gonads. | LH causes secretion of sex steroids in both sexes and FSH stimulates the maturation of ovarian follicles and increases sperm production.
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| What affect does prolactin have on the mammary glands? | Promotes development of mammary glands during pregnancy and stimulates milk production after birth.
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| Oxytocin vs. Prolactin | Prolactin stimulates the milk production and oxytocin aids in ejection.
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| What tissues/organs does GH target? | Bone, muscles, and adipose.
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| Gigantism | Excessive GH causing extensive growth of long bones during childhood.
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| Acromegaly | Excessive GH causes extensive growth of body parts that never stop growing in adults like hands, feet, nose, chin, ears.
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| What happens with deficiency of GH? | Growth failure.
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| What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary? | Oxytocin and ADH
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| What are the targets for oxytocin and ADH? | Oxytocin targets the cervix and mammary glands. ADH targets the collecting tubules of the kidneys.
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| What are the functions of the blood? | Transport of dissolved gases, nutrients, and hormones. Maintain body temperature.
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| How is blood classified? | Specialized connective tissue that is bright to dark red, viscous, slightly alkaline, and accounts for 7% of total body weight.
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| What are the two major components of blood? | Plasma and formed elements.
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| What are the three types of formed elements? | RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets.
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| What are the three types of plasma proteins? | Albumins - 60%, Globulins - 35%, Fibrinogens - 4%.
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| Where are most of the plamsa proteins produced? | Liver.
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| What is hematopoiesis? | The formation of all blood cells.
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| What is hemoglobin? | A large protein composed of four polypeptide chains each of which is covalently bound to a heme group.
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| What is hematocrit? | The total red blood cell volume.
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| How is hematocrit used to detect problems? | Increases with dehydration because plasma levels decrease. Decreases with internal bleeding.
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| Explain the functions of the unusual shape of RBCs. | 1. Increase surface area. 2. Flexible. 3. Stack neatly.
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| Why can't RBC undergo cell division and why do they have a short life span? | Because they have no nucleus and no mitochondria.
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| Why would it be a negative thing for RBCs to contain mitochondria? | Because the mitochondria would use the oxygen to produce ATP.
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| What makes up a molecule of hemoglobin? | 2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains, and 4 HPC's (heme groups)
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| How many molecules of hemoglobin are found in a single RBC? | 280 million in each RBC.
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| What is the role of heme? | Critical in the transportation of oxygen because the iron in heme binds to the oxygen to transport it.
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| What happens when heme interacts with oxygen? | Binds to oxygen.
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| Why must the bond between heme and oxygen be reversible? | So that the RBCs can release oxygen to the body.
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| What is deoxyhemoglobin? | Hemoglobin without oxygen.
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| What happens to old red blood cells? | They are phagocytosed and reeassimilated by the body.
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| What is erythropoiesis? | The formation of RBCs.
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| Where does erythropoiesus occur? | Bone marrow.
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| What are the two categories of WBCs? | Granulocytes and Agranulocytes
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| What is the significance of these categories? | The presence or absence of granules based on how they stain.
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| What role do WBCs serve? | Form a defense system.
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| What are the types of WBCs? | Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.
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| What are antigens? | Any substance that stimulates an immune response by the body.
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| Where are they located? | On the outside of the cell.
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| What are antibodies? | Any of a large variety of proteins that are normally present in the body or produced in response to an antigen.
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| What is agglutination? | What antibodies lock into an antigen and the cell membrane lysis and clumping appears.
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| Explain the maturation process of RBCs. | Iron gets used up > Biliverdin > Bilirubin > Released into blood stream > Bilirubin binds to albumin > transported to liver for excretion in bile.
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| How is erythropoiesis regulated? | By production of erythropoietin by the kidneys.
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| What is erythropoietin? | A glycoprotein secreted by the kidneys that stimulates the production of RBCs.
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| When is erythropoietin released? | If circulating RBC level is low.
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| What are the two major effects of releaseing erythropoietin? | Pre curser cells of RBCs are produced.
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| WBCs vs. RBCs | WBCs - nucleus, bigger, function in immunity, less abundant. RBCs - no nuclei, more abundant, small, supply oxygen.
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| Leukopenia | Inadequate amout of WBCs.
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| Leukocytosis | Too many WBCs.
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| How do you determine a person's blood type? | By what antigens are present: A,B,Rh, or none.
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