Cognitive Psychology material for test 2 (ch 6 - 9, 11, 12)
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| Amygdala | An area of brain tissue with extensive connections to the olfactory system and hypothalamus, thought to be involved in mood, feeling, instinct, and short-term memory.
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| anterograde amnesia | Lack of memory for events that occur after a brain injury.
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| autobiographical memory | Memory for events and other information from one’s own life.
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| context effect | The effect on a cognitive process of the information surrounding the target object or event. Sometimes called “expectation effect” because the context is thought to set up certain expectations in the mind of the cognitive processor.
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| cue overload | A principle of memory that states a retrieval cue will be most effective when it is highly distinctive and not related to any other target memories.
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| encoding specificity | A principle of retrieval asserted by Tulving
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| encoding variability | The way the encoding of information varies as a function of context.
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| eyewitness memory | A narrative memory of a personally witnessed event.
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| false memory | “Recollections” of “events” that never in fact occurred. See also recovered memory.
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| fan effect | The phenomenon whereby retrieval time to retrieve a particular fact about a concept increases as more facts are known about that concept.
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| featural analysis | A model of perception emphasizing the analysis of a stimulus into parts, called features.
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| flashbulb memory | A phenomenon in which people recall their personal circumstances at the time they heard of or witnessed an unexpected and very significant event (for example, an assassination, a natural disaster).
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| hippocampus | A structure of the brain in the medial temporal lobe; damage or removal can result in amnesia.
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| incidental learning | The retention of information even when it is not required of, or even intended by, the processor.
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| levels-of-processing theory of memory | An alternative to the modal view of memory that postulates that memory depends not on a particular memory store but on the initial processing done to the information at the time of acquisition.
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| memory consolidation | The biochemical process(es) by which neural synaptic connections are strengthened or weakened.
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| Mnemonics | Strategies to facilitate retention and later retrieval of information.
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| mood-dependent memory effect | The empirical finding that people’s ability to recall information is best when their mood at the time of recall matches their mood at the time of learning.
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| paired associates learning | A memory task in which experimental subjects are first presented with a list of pairs of words (for example, flag– spoon) and later asked to recall the second word in a pair (for example, spoon) when presented with the first (for example, flag).
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| recovered memory | Autobiographical memories, usually of traumatic events, that are not accessible for some period of time but later become able to be retrieved. See also false memory.
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| repressed memory | A controversial explanation of amnesia for traumatic events. See also false memory, recovered memory.
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| retrieval cue | A stimulus that helps a person recall or recognize stored information.
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| retroactive interference | A phenomenon in which subsequently learned material lowers the probability of recalling earlier learned material.
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| retrograde amnesia | Amnesia concerning old events.
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| Schemata | Frameworks for organizing and representing knowledge that contain roles, variables, and fixed parts.
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| spacing effect | A phenomenon in which recall of material that is presented repeatedly is superior when the presentations are some time apart rather than immediately following one another.
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| state-dependent learning | The phenomenon that recall is easier when the pharmacological state of the person at recall matches his or her pharmacological state during encoding.
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| state-dependent memory | The phenomenon that material is easier to retrieve when the learner is experiencing the same state or context (for example, physical location, physiological state) that she or he was experiencing at the time of encoding. See also encoding specificity.
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| adaptive control of thought (ACT) model of memory | A theory of memory developed by John Anderson that specifies a networked memory comprised of working memory, declarative memory, and procedural memory.
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| characteristic feature | A feature that is typically, though not always, a part of an object or concept.
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| cognitive economy | A principle of hierarchical semantic networks such that properties and facts about a node are stored at the highest level possible. For example, the fact “is alive” would be stored with the node for “animal” rather than stored with each node under animal
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| declarative memory | A memory system thought to contain knowledge, facts, information, ideas, or anything that can be recalled and described in words, pictures, or symbols.
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| defining feature | A feature that is necessarily a part of an object or concept. Also called a necessary feature.
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| episodic memory | A memory system proposed by Tulving that is thought to hold memories of specific events with which the cognitive processor had direct experience.
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| explicit memory | Consciously recalled or recollected memory.
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| feature comparison model of semantic memory | A model of semantic memory positing that words or concepts are mentally represented in terms of a set of elements called features.
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| hierarchical semantic network model of semantic memory | A model of semantic memory organized in terms of nodes and links, which stores properties at the highest relevant node to conserve cognitive economy.
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| implicit memory | Memory that is not deliberate or conscious but exhibits evidence of prior experience.
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| lexical decision task | A task in which an experimental subject is presented with letter strings and asked to judge, as quickly as possible, if the strings form words.
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| Lexicon | A mental store thought to hold a cognitive processor’s knowledge of words, including their spelling, pronunciation, definition, part of speech, and so on.
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| memory system | A kind of memory (for example, episodic memory, semantic memory) that operates on distinct principles and stores a distinct kind of information.
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| procedural memory | A memory system thought to contain information concerning action and sequences of actions—for example, one’s knowledge of how to ride a bicycle or swing a golf club.
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| process dissociation framework | The idea that memory tasks typically call on a mixture of automatic and intentional cognitive processes.
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| production rules | A hypothesized mental representation of procedural memory, which specifies a goal to be achieved, one or more conditions that must be true in order for the rule to be applied, and one or more actions that result from the application of the rule.
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| repetition priming | Priming that facilitates the cognitive processing of information after a recent exposure to that same information.
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| Schema | An organized framework for representing knowledge that typically includes characters, plots, and settings, and incorporates both general knowledge about the world and information about particular events.
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| Script | A schema for routine events.
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| semantic memory | A memory system proposed by Tulving that is thought to hold memories of general knowledge.
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| semantic network | A depiction of semantic memory consisting of nodes (which roughly correspond to words or concepts) and connections between nodes.
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| semantic priming | A phenomenon in which exposure to one word (e.g., nurse) facilitates the recognition of semantically related words (e.g., doctor).
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| source-monitoring errors | An inability to remember the original source of a memory.
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| spreading activation | The excitation of one node in a semantic network by the excitation of another node to which it is connected; the excitation is said to flow across the connections.
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| stage theories | Theories of development that postulate qualitatively different periods (stages).
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| typicality effect | The phenomenon in which experimental subjects are faster to respond to typical instances of a concept (for example, robin for the concept “bird”) than they are to atypical instances (for example, penguin).
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| Artifact | Concept pertaining to manufactured or human-designed objects.
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| basic level of categories | A hypothesized type of concept thought to be at a psychologically fundamental level of abstraction.
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| Categorization | The organization of information into coherent, meaningful groups.
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| Category | A grouping of items sharing one or more similarities.
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| classical view of concepts | The idea that all examples or instances of a concept share fundamental characteristics or features.
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| Concept | A mental representation of a category.
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| exemplar view of concepts | The idea that a concept consists of mental representations of actual instances or examples.
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| family resemblance | A structure of categories in which each member shares different features with different members. Few, if any, features are shared by every single member of the category.
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| Feature | A component, or part, of an object, event, or representation.
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| implicit learning | Learning that occurs without explicit awareness of what has been learned.
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| knowledge-based view of concepts | The idea that concepts function in relation to their instances as a scientific theory does to data supporting it.
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| natural-kind concept | Concepts pertaining to naturally occurring substances.
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| nominal-kind concept | Concepts pertaining to ideas or objects that have well-delimited definitions.
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| nonanalytic concept formation | Cognitive processes that implicitly acquire knowledge of a complex structure during the memorization of examples.
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| Prototype | An abstract representation of an idealized member of a class of objects or events.
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| prototype view of concepts | The idea that all concepts are organized around idealized mental representations of examples.
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| psychological essentialism | The idea that people possess implicit theories about fundamental characteristics that all instances of a concept contain or embody.
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| schemata/scripts view of concepts | The idea that all concepts are schemata.
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| subordinate level of categories | A hypothesized type of concept thought to make fewer distinctions than does a basic level concept.
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| superordinate level of categories | A level of categorization broader than the basic level, including exemplars that can be quite dissimilar from one another.
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| demand characteristic | A property of certain tasks such that an experimental subject’s behavior or responses are “cued” by the task itself.
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| dual-coding hypothesis | Paivio’s assertion that long-term memory can code information in two distinct ways, verbally and visually, and that items coded both ways are more easily recalled than items coded in only one way.
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| experimenter expectancy effect | The influence on the performance of experimental participants generated by an experimenter’s beliefs or hypotheses, which somehow get subtly transmitted to the participants.
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| Heuristic | A rule of thumb, or shortcut method, used in thinking, reasoning, and/or decision making.
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| imaginal scanning | A task in which a participant is asked to form a mental image and to scan over it from one point to another.
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| implicit encoding | A principle of imagery that holds mental imagery is used in retrieving information about physical properties of objects, or of physical relationships among objects, that may not have been explicitly encoded.
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| mental rotation | A type of visual imagery task in which subjects are asked to form an image of a stimulus and then to imagine how it would look as it rotates around a horizontal or vertical axis.
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| method of loci | A memorization method that requires the learner to visualize an ordered series of physical locations as mnemonic cues for a list of information.
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| Mnemonics | Strategies to facilitate retention and later retrieval of information.
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| relational-organizational hypothesis | The idea that visual imagery aids memory by producing a greater number of associations.
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| space around the body | The area immediately around a person’s body, in which the person can easily perceive and act on objects.
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| space of navigation | Large spaces that people walk through, explore, or travel to and through.
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| space of the body | Awareness of where the different parts of one’s body are located at any given moment and what other objects different body parts are interacting with; used, along with internal sensations, to direct different parts of the body spatially.
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| tacit knowledge | People’s underlying and implicit beliefs about a task or event.
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| visual image | A mental representation of a stimulus thought to share at least some properties with a pictorial or spatial depiction of the stimulus.
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| Backtracking | A problem-solving technique that involves keeping track of where in the solving process assumptions are made, so they may later be changed.
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| Creativity | Cognitive processes that employ appropriate novelty; originality that suits some purpose.
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| critical thinking | A type of thinking that involves careful examination of assumptions and evidence and that is purposeful and deliberate.
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| expert system | A computer program designed to model the judgments of a human expert in a particular field.
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| functional fixedness | A problem-solving phenomenon in which people have difficulty seeing alternate uses for common objects.
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| generate-and-test technique | A problem-solving strategy in which the solver enumerates (generates) possible solutions and then tries each to see if it constitutes a solution.
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| GPS (General Problem Solver) | A computer program developed by Allan Newell and Herbert Simon, that solved problems in crypt arithmetic and logic using means–ends analysis.
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| ill-defined problem | A problem that does not have the goals, starting information, and/or legal steps stated explicitly.
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| Incubation | Unconscious processing that works on a specific problem while the mind is otherwise occupied.
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| inference rule | Hypothesized special-purpose rule used in reasoning to draw conclusions.
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| Introspection | A methodological technique in which trained observers are asked to reflect on, and report on, their conscious experience while performing cognitive tasks.
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| means–ends analysis | A problem-solving strategy in which the solver compares the goal to the current state, then chooses a step to reduce maximally the difference between them.
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| mental set | The tendency to adopt a certain framework, strategy, or procedure based on immediate experience or context.
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| perceptual set | The tendency to perceive an object or pattern in a certain way, based on one’s immediate perceptual experience.
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| problem solving | The cognitive process(es) used in transforming starting information into a goal state, using specified means of solution.
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| problem space hypothesis | The idea that problem solving is isomorphic to a search through a mental graph, with nodes corresponding to every possible state of affairs of a problem and connections corresponding to legal moves.
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| reasoning by analogy | Problem solving that employs an analogy between the current problem and another problem that has already been solved.
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| Thinking | A cognitive process used to transform or manipulate information that may be either focused (that is, solving problems with clear goals) or unfocused (that is, invoking loosely related ideas without clear purpose).
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| unconscious processing | See incubation.
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| well-defined problem | A problem whose goals, starting information, and legal steps are stated explicitly.
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| working backward | A problem-solving technique that identifies the final goal and the steps, in reverse order, that are necessary to reach the goal.
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| analogical reasoning | Drawing inductive inferences that specify a fourth (D) term that projects a relationship found between the first two (A and B) terms onto the third (C) term of the analogy, in problems of the form A is to B and C is to D.
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| believability effect | The tendency to draw or accept conclusions from premises when the content of the conclusion makes intuitive sense, regardless of the logical necessity.
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| Bias | A tendency to think in a certain way or to follow certain procedures regardless of the facts of the matter.
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| cognitive illusions | The systematic biases and errors in human decision making.
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| cognitive overload | Breakdown of cognitive processing that occurs when the available information exceeds processing capacity.
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| componential approach to the study of reasoning | An approach to cognitive psychology in which performance on a task is analyzed into its component cognitive processes.
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| confirmation bias | A tendency to seek only information consistent with one’s hypothesis.
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| content effect | Performance variability on reasoning tasks that require identical kinds of formal reasoning but are dissimilar in superficial content.
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| contradiction | A statement that is false by definition of its form (for example, “A and not-A are both true”).
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| deductive reasoning | Drawing conclusions from only the given premises.
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| deductive validity | A property of some logical arguments such that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion(s) to be false.
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| everyday reasoning | Mundane reasoning that differs from formal reasoning in its use of implicit premises, multiple solutions, personal relevance, and possible emotional involvement.
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| Fallacy | An erroneous argument.
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| formal reasoning | Reasoning about problems with explicit premises, finite solutions, and well-defined operations.
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| inductive reasoning | Reasoning that involves drawing conclusions that are suggested, but not necessarily true.
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| inductive strength | A property of some logical arguments such that it is improbable (but not impossible) for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.
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| logical connectives | Symbols used in logic arguments to form compound propositions. Examples
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| mental models approach to the study of reasoning | The idea that reasoning proceeds with general-purpose cognitive processes used in the construction of mental representations.
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| Premise | A statement, from which others are inferred, that helps establish what is already known about a problem.
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| propositional reasoning | Drawing conclusions from premises that are in the form of true or false assertions.
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| rules/heuristics approach to the study of reasoning | The idea that reasoning proceeds through the application of rules or heuristics, either general or domain specific.
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| syllogistic reasoning | Reasoning with problems concerning relationships among categories; for example, “All A are B; Some B are C; therefore, Some A are C.”
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| tautology | A statement that is true by definition of its form (for example, “A is either true or it is false”).
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| truth table | A method of showing when compound logical expressions are true and when they are false by considering every possible assignment of truth values to propositions.
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