Glycolysis
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| Glycosis | - process that cleaves and oxidizes glucose
-ultimate goal to produce ATP, pyruvate and NHDA
-happen in cytosol of all cell
-required for production of energy from glucose(ananerobic or aerobic cell)
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| What are the starting material for glycosis | Glucose, ADP, NAD+
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| how does glucose enter the cell? | it is mediated by a facilitated transporter (GLUT)
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| Which cell has high affinity transporter with large amount of transporters on the cell surface? | RBC and Brain
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| Which cell or tissue has low affinity transporter and large amount on cell surface? | LIVER
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| Which cell or tissue has insulin sensitive transporters and little amount on cell surface? | Muscle and adipose tissue
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| which enzyme catalyze the process of converting glucose to glucose-6-phosphate | Hexokinase
different isoform (Liver ==> Glucokinase , hexokinase IV)
brain: hexokinase I
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| how does a cell trap glucose? | Glucose --> glucose - 6- phosphate
the phosphorylation of glucose result in product that is not able to cross the membrane
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| What is the name of hexokinase used by Liver | Glucokinase
we don't call it Hexokinase
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| Which tissue-specific hexokinase is upregulated by insulin? | Liver and muscle
brain hexokinase is not regulated by insulinas brain is highly depend on glucose
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| why liver hexokinase cant be inhibited by glucagon, but muscle hexokinase is not affected? | Muscle has no receptor for glucagon
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| 3 pathway that glucose-6-phosphate can proceed to | 1) glycolysis
2) glycogenesis
3) pentose phosphate pathyway
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| which enzyme catalyze following process fructose 6-phosphate ==> fructose 1,6-biphosphate | Phosphofructokinase -1 (PFK --1)
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| activation and inhibition factor of PFK-1 | Activation factor: AMP
Inhibition factor: ATP
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| Which two products does fructose 1,6-biphosphate split into? | Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
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| What enzyme catalyze the formation of pyruvate and from which molecules? | Phosphoenolpyruvate => pyruvate
enzyme: pyruvate kinase
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| Pyruvate kinase has tissue specific isoform. What upregulate and down regulate its function in liver and muscle | upregulated by Insulin (liver and muscle)
downregulated by Glucagon (Liver only)
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| what are the two product formed from Pyruvate | 1) Acetyl-coA (catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase)
2) Lacate (catalyzed by Lactate dehydrogenase)
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| can NADH cross from cytoplasm to mitochondrion? | NO
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| What are the two ways to regenerate NAD+ | 1) donation of NADH e- to the electron transport chain with help of shuttle system (shift an H atom across the mitochondrial membrane)
2) Lactate dehydrogenase reaction : important to glycolysis in anaerobic tissue
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| where does the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coA happen in cell? is it a reversible or irreversible process? | It occurs in mitochondria and is irreversible process
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| What enzyme catalyze process of conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coA? | pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
(multisubunit enzyme complex)
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| What activate the activity of PDC? | Elevation of ADP and substrate(Pyruvate) and Calcium (exercising muscle)with sufficient O2 supply
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| What inhibit the activity of PDC? | elevation of ATP, CoA-acetyl, NADH and absence of O2
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| what is the key rate limiting enzyme in TCA cycle? | Isocitrate dehydrogenase
activated by increasing ADP and Calcium
inihibited by increasing NADH
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| TCA Cycle | -required for all aerobic production of ATP form glucose
-required to generate ATP form ketons, fatty acid, alcohol and amino acid
-generate other intermediates for other pathway
-required vitamin derived cofactor
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| What vitamin derived cofactor is required by TCA cycle and PDC activity? | -) pantothenate
- biotin
-niacin
-thiamine
-ribioglavin
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| List the factors which will reduce aerobic metabolism | -nutritional deficiencies
-Ischemia/hypoxia
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| How can delpeted oxaloacetate be replenished? | It can replenish from Pyruvate with the help of pyruvate carboxylase.
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| What molecules can be broken down to acetyl-coA? | fatty acid, ketones, amino acid, alcohol
TCA cycle is a must to generate ATP from them
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| Pathway of TCA cycle | Pyruvate ==> Oxaloacetate=> citrate => isocitrate => alpha-ketoglutarote => succinyl coA => succinate => fumarate => malate => oxaloacetate
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| What kind of synthesis is associate with citrate | fatty acid syntheis
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| What kind of synthesis is associated with succinly CoA? | heme synthesis
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| What is the rate limiting process in TCA cycle? | citrate ==> alpha-ketoglutarate
(citrate dehydrogenase)
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| product of TCA Cycle | NADH, FADH2, CO2
(NADH and FADH2 are reoxidized through oxidative phosphorylation process)
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| where do we find acetyl CoA? | Mitochondrion
It is synthesized in mitochondrion but it cannot across the Mitochondrial membrane
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| What is the intermediate product if we want to convert acetyl CoA to fatty acid? | Citrate, so it can move out into cytosol where fatty acid synthesis occurs
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| list the 3 irreversible enzymes of glycolysis | 1) Hexokinase (glucokinase in liver)
2) Phosphofructokinase
3) Pyruvate kinase
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| Phosphofructokinase -2 (PFK-2) | It catalyze the conversion of frctose-6-phosphate to fructose-2,6-biphsophate which will activate the activity of PFK-1
(ENSURE ALL EXCESS FUEL GET STORED)
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| which enzyme promote the synthesis of glycagon | Glucagon synthase + branching enzyme
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| Which enzyme promote the degradation of glycagon | Glucogen phosphorylase + debranching enzyme
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| Glucose 6- phosphatase | -ONLY in Liver
-convert glucose 6-phosphate to glucose and export out of cell
muscle lack of this enzyme and cant transport glucose out of cell
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| Which transduction pathway does insulin associate with? | Tyrosine kinase receptor
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| Which transduction pathway does Glucagon and epinephrine associate with? | GPCR (G-protein coupled receptor)
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| pathway of glycagon synthesis from glucose 1-phosphate | glucose-1-phosphate ==> UDP-glucose ==> Glycogen
enzyme: glycogen synthase, branching enzyme)
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| Pathway of glycagon degradation in all cell | glycagon ==> glucose-1-phosphate
enzyme: glycogen phosphorylase, debranching enzyme
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| What activate glucogen synthase activity? | insulin
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| What inihibit glucogen synthase activity? | Glucagon (exception muscle)
epinephrine
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| What activate glucogen phosphorylase activity? | liver: Glucagon and epinephrine
muscle: epinephrine, AMP, Ca2+
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| What inhibit glucogen phosphorylase activity? | Insulin
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| what factor determine glycogen degradation in muslce cell | 1) the need for ATP
2) whether or not the muscle is exercising (level of calcium)
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| slow twitch fiber vs fast twitch fiber | Slow twitch fiber has
-higher capacity for aerobic metabolism
-lots of mitochondrion and myoglobin
-resistant to fatigue
-more glycogen
-slower contraction speed
than fast twitch fiber
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| Myoglobin | one subunit, bind one oxygem molecules and help transport of oxygen in muscle cell
-it also serves as small O2 store
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| what type of muscle fiber does muscle involve in posture usually have? | Slow twitch fiber
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| What type of muscle fiber does muscle in leg has? | Fast twitch fiber
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| Cardiac muscle | higher aerobic metabolism and DOES NOT store much glycogen
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| What factor determine the degree of glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle? | The length of fast
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| the effect of ephinephrine and cortisol on skeletal muscle during prolonged fasting? | it increases skeletal muscle break down and conversion of amino acid to glucose
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| Creatine | -synthesized in kidney, complete in liver, take up by skeletal and cardiac muscle cell
-store energy in creatine phosphate form
-provide rapid energy supply to muscle
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| Myokinase | -enzyme express in muscle cell
-2ADP==> 1 ATP + 1 AMP
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| Which pathway is the primary way that skeletal muscle obtains its ATP at the onset of exercise | Anaerobic glycolysis
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| Anaerobic glycolysis | -generate ATP rapidly at the onset of exercise
-increase production of lactate
=a means of regnerating NAD+
= production of lactic acid contribute to muscle pain
=use as fuel source for other tissue
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| Cori Cycle | the cycling of lactate between anaerbic tissue and liver) when anaerobic glycolysis and gluconeogeneiss occur simultaneously
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| AST | -present high amount in skeltal and cardiac muscle
increase AST ==> Tissue damage
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| List isoform of Creatine kinase in brain, muscle and cardiac muscle | Brain; 2 B subunit (CK-BB_
Muslce; 2 M subunit (CK-MM)
Cardiac muscle: 1 M and 1 B subunit (CK-MB)
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| Rhabdomyolysis | -breakdow product of damaged muscle tissue release into blood stream
-increase in creatinine level
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| Myositis | inflammatrion of cell
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| what happen to the level of creatinine in a person with loss of muscle | Decrease level of creatinine
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