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A&P Unit 1 & 2 test
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Gross Anatomy | examines large structures with the unaided eye. Methods used include dissection, medical imaging, and exploratory surgery |
| Gross Anatomy: Regional | study structures by region. The structures are physically related because they are all located in the same region. Example of a regional study: studying the anatomy of the abdominal region |
| Gross Anatomy: Systemic | study structures by system. The structures are functionally related because they all work to perform the same function. Example of a systemic study: studying the anatomy of the digestive system |
| Gross Anatomy: Surface | study internal structures in context of external markings (images of surface anatomy can be found in Atlas B of the text); As shown in figure at the right the surface features on the leg are caused by internal structures. |
| Microscopic anatomy | examines small structures using a microscope |
| 2 areas of microscopic anatomy | Cytology: the study of cells Histology: the study of tissues |
| Developmental anatomy | study of the changes occurring throughout the entire life of an organism from before birth to death |
| complementarity of structure & function: | It means the way an object is built (its structure) allows for it to achieve (it complements) the objects special purpose (its function) |
| 7 levels of organization | Chemical: simplest level; Organelle ; Cellular; Tissue; Organ; Organ system; Organism |
| Chemical | simplest level Includes: a) Atoms: the smallest unit of matter (more detail in Unit 2) Examples: carbon (C) and oxygen (O) b) Molecules: two or more atoms bonded together Examples: proteins and C6H12O6 (glucose) |
| Organelle | a group of chemicals form an organelle. Organelles are little "organs" inside of cell; each organelle has a specific function Examples: Nucleus & mitochondria |
| Cellular | a group of organelles form a cell. A cell is the smallest unit of life because it is the smallest unit that can perform all the characteristics of life There are more than 200 different cell types in the body. They all vary in size in shape and this is |
| Tissue | a group of cells form tissue; A tissue is a group of cells working to perform a specific function There are four types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous |
| Organ | a group of tissues form an organ. An organ is a group of 2 or more tissues working to perform a specific function An organ can be part of more than 1 system. For example, the pancreas is part of the endocrine system and the digestive system |
| Organ system | a group of organs form a system; A system is group of organs working to perform a specific function |
| Organism | the most complex level An organism is a group of organ systems working to form an organism |
| 7 characteristics of life | Organization; Metabolism; Responsiveness & Movement; Homeostasis; Development; Reproduction; Evolution |
| Organization | living things are organized; specifically, they are organized into a structure called a cell |
| Metabolism | living things have the ability to take in chemicals from the environment & alter them through chemical reactions Definition of metabolism: all the chemical reactions taking place in the body |
| 2 examples of chemical reactions | a) Catabolic reaction: breaks a large molecule into smaller ones Example: digestion of food b) Anabolic reaction: builds a large molecule from smaller ones Example: building muscle tissue (growth) |
| Responsiveness & Movement All living things are capable of at least one of these types of Movement | Responsiveness means living things are capable of detecting and responding to environmental changes (these changes are called stimuli). The environment can be the internal environment (inside the body) or the external environment(outside the body) When w |
| Homeostasis | living things can maintain stable internal conditions even when external conditions change; for example, when it is cold outside, your body can maintain a stable body temperature |
| Development | living things change over their lifetime |
| Development- Involves two processes: | a)Differentiation the process by which cells become specialized to perform a certain function. b)Growth: increase in size 3 ways growth can occur: (a)by adding more cells (b) by increasing the size of already existing cells |
| Reproduction | the ability to (a) form a new individual and/or (b) the ability to form new cells within the body All living things are capable of at least one of these types of reproduction |
| Evolution | Change in a population of organisms over time Change occurs as a result of genetic changes (mutations) that give a survival advantage |
| Maintaining homeostasis involves communication between different organs, tissues, and cells of the body. Methods by which they communicate: | 1) Hormones: chemical communication; they communicate by sending chemicals 2) Nerve impulses: electrical communication; they communicate by electrical signals |
| controlled condition | the condition subject to homeostatic monitoring Examples of controlled conditions: amount of CO2 in the blood, body temperature, fluid balance, and amount of glucose in the blood |
| Two types of homeostatic control mechanisms: Negative feedback system: | 1) Negative feedback system: Prevents the controlled condition from changing any further. Works to keep the condition close to the set point. Shuts off or reduces the original stimulus |
| Two types of homeostatic control mechanisms: Positive feedback mechanism | Allows the controlled condition to change further. Is a self amplifying mechanism (once it starts, it keeps going and going). It cannot shut itself off an event outside the mechanism must shut if off. It actually enhances or increases the original stimulu |
| Definition of body cavity | : closed internal spaces in the axial division of the body They contain organs & fluid and are lined by tissue Two body cavities: Dorsal cavity and Ventral cavity |
| Dorsal cavity | Located: dorsal (dorsal means towards the back) Contains: CNS (central nervous system) Tissue that lines the dorsal cavity is called meninges 2 parts of dorsal cavity: a) Cranial: Contains the brain b) Vertebral (Spinal): Contains the spinal cord |
| Ventral cavity | Located: ventral (ventral means towards the front) Contains: visceral organs Tissue that lines the ventral cavity is called serous membrane (or serosa) |
| serous membrane (or serosa) Serous membrane has two layers | Tissue that lines the ventral cavity is called serous membrane a) Parietal layer: covers the wall of the body cavity. Can be considered the outer layer b) Visceral layer: covers the organs in the cavity. Can be considered the inner layer |
| 2 parts of ventral body cavity | Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavity |
| Thoracic: divided into 3 parts: | a) Pleural cavities: two of them; Each contains one lung b) Mediastinum: this is the name for the center of the cavity c) Pericardial cavity: contains the heart. This is actually located in the mediastinum |
| 2) Abdominopelvic cavity: divided into two parts; | a) Abdominal cavity: contains mostly digestive organs b) Pelvic cavity: contains bladder, large intestine (LI), & internal reproductive organs Special name for serosa that lines the abdominopelvic cavity: it is called peritoneum |
| Biochemistry | is the study of the chemistry of living things |
| chemistry | study of the composition, structure, and properties of matter |
| matter | anything that takes up space and has mass (weight). Matter is made of elements |
| element | substance that cannot be broken down into other substances with different properties. Is a pure substance. Are 92 naturally occurring elements. They are listed on the periodic table |
| chemical symbol | the letter abbreviation for an element Examples of chemical symbols: C is for carbon H is for hydrogen K is for potassium Ca is for calcium |
| Most abundant elements in the body are | O= oxygen, C=carbon, N=nitrogen, H=hydrogen, Ca=calcium, and P = phosphorus |
| Second most abundant are | K=potassium, S=sulfur , Na= sodium, Cl=chlorine, Mg= magnesium, Fe=iron |
| Definition of atom | smallest unit of matter Is very small |
| Definition of nucleus | the center of an atom Made of 3 different subatomic particles |
| 3 subatomic particles: | 1) Protons. Have a positive charge. Are in the nucleus of an atom 2) Neutrons. Have no charge. Are located in the nucleus of an atom 3) Electrons. Have a negative charge. Are located surrounding the nucleus in electrons shells |
| atomic number | is the number of protons |
| atomic mass | is the sum of protons & neutrons |
| isotope | Atoms of same element but have different number of neutrons. |
| radioisotope | unstable isotope. radioactive.they emit particles from nucleus a) Low energy: are harmless b) High energy: are harmful |
| ionizing radiation | the term for the high energy particles. In high doses are quickly fatal. In low doses are mutagenic and/or carcinogenic Examples of ionizing radiation: UV light, X rays, and nuclear radiation |
| free radical | atom/group of atoms w/ unpaired electron result from normal metabolic reactions, exposure to radiation,are present in certain chemicals such as nitrites Problem b/c theyre unstable&very reactive Will steal electron from another molecule in cell(DNA/protei |
| antioxidant | substance that will neutralize free radicals. Found naturally in cell (certain enzymes function as antioxidants) and can be obtained from the diet (such as vitamins C, E & A) |
| energy | the ability to do work |
| work | ability to move something -things that can be moved in physiology? 1) Bones;when the body is moving 2) Proteins inside muscle cells during muscle contraction 3) Chemical bonds &atoms during a chemical reaction 4) Substances across the membrane of a cell |
| 2 forms of Energy | Kinetic and potential energy. |
| Kinetic Energy | energy of motion. energy that is doing work Physiological examples: Bones such as when the body is moving;Proteins inside muscle cells during muscle contraction;Chemical bonds and atoms during a chemical reaction; Substances across the membrane of a cell |
| Potential Energy | energy of position. It is energy that is not doing work (at the moment) but has the potential to example: ion& solutes being kept at different concentrations on each side of the cell membrane & being prevented from moving across the cell membrane |
| 3 types of energy that are important in the body | Chemical energy; Electrical energy; Electromagnetic energy |
| Chemical energy | energy in chemical bonds Form: potential energy this energy in chemical bonds is released during a chemical reaction. Example of chemical energy: Nutrient (food) molecules (food is your body’s source of chemical energy) |
| Electrical energy | energy from movement of ions Form: kinetic energy Examples of electrical energy: a) Electrical wires (wires have copper ions inside them) b) Movements of ions across a cell membrane c) Batteries |
| Electromagnetic energy | energy of electromagnetic waves (they are not visible to the eye) Form: kinetic Examples of electromagnetic energy: a) Light rays: this includes visible light, UV light, infrared light, etc b) X rays |
| chemical bond | a force holding atoms together three types of chemical bonds- Ionic, covalent, hydrogen |
| chemical formula | is an abbreviation for a molecule The chemical formula tells us the specific elements found in the molecule and the number of atoms of each element in a molecule |
| compound | a special type of molecule that contains atoms of 2 or more different elements Examples of compounds: H2O and C6H12O6 |
| isomer | molecules with same chemical formula but atoms are arranged differently. Isomers have different properties |
| mixture | a substance made of 2 or more physically intermixed substances. No chemical bonding between the substances 4 types of mixtures |
| Solution mixture | a homogeneous and transparent mixture with small dissolved solute particles -homogeneous: it is evenly mixed -transparent: light can pass through Ex: a) Sea water (this would be sea water without any sand in it) b) Kool aid c) Saline solution |
| 2 parts of a solution; Solvent and solute | Solvent: the substance that does the dissolving. In A&P, the solvent is always water. b) Solute: the dissolved substances. They are dissolved in the solvent. Solutes can be solids, gases, or other liquids |
| Colloid mixture | a heterogeneous and opaque mixture with large dissolved solute particles -heterogeneous: not evenly mixed -opaque: light cannot pass through (which means you cannot see through it) Examples of colloids: a) Jello b) Milk (raw milk} |
| suspension mixture | a heterogeneous & opaque mixture with very large solute particles that are not completely dissolved. particles will settle to bottom Examples of suspensions: a) Sand and water b) Medications like Amoxicillin c) Blood |
| Emulsion | a type of suspension where one liquid is suspended in another Examples of emulsions: a) Kaopectate/Milk of Magnesia b) Oil and vinegar |
| There are three ways to measure solute concentration: | 1)Weight per volume: weight solute per volume solvent Ex: 8.5g/l NaCl (8.5 grams NaCl per liter water)2)Percentage: percent solute relative to solvent Ex: 5% dextrose 3)Molarity: #molecules of solute per volume solvent Expressed in units M(molar)/ mM(mil |
| valence shell | the outer shell of an atom. It determines the bonding properties of an atom because atoms want to have a full valence shell. Atoms form bonds in order to fill their valence shells |
| chemically active elements | an atom with an unfilled valence shell; it is actively looking to form bonds with other atoms in order to fill its valence shell |
| chemically stable (inert) element | will not form bonds because its valence shell is already filled |
| Ionic bond | : is a bond formed when atoms transfer electrons |
| a cation | positively charged atom atom lose electron(s) and become positively charged Cation and anion are attracted to each other (because they are opposites). This attraction is the force holding them together. The force is the bond. |
| anion | negatively charged atom The atom that takes up the electrons becomes negatively charged Cation and anion are attracted to each other (because they are opposites). This attraction is the force holding them together. The force is the bond. |
| ion | a charged atom; cations and anions are examples of ions Specific examples of ions: 1) Cations like Na+ and Ca+ 2) Anions like Cl- and OH- in physiology, ions are also called electrolytes or minerals |
| ionic compound | compound formed by an ionic bond Ex: NaCl (table salt) When an ionic compound is placed in water, the ionic bond it dissociates (is broken). When it dissociates, the cations and anions are released |
| Covalent bond | is a bond formed when atoms share pairs of electrons Covalent bonds can be: a) Single bond: this happens when they share one pair b) Double bond: this happens when they share two pairs c) Triple bone: this happens when they share three pairs |
| 2 types of covalent bonds | Polar and non-polar |
| Polar covalent bond | result from unequal sharing of electrons Unequal sharing results in formation of electropositive ion and electronegative ion |
| Electropositive ion | has a partial positive charge (an electropositive ion is not a cation—it does not have “real” positive charge like a cation—it has a “partial” positive charge). |
| Electronegative ion | has a partial negative charge (an electronegative ion is not an anion—it does not have “real” negative charge like an anion—it has a “partial” negative charge). |
| polar molecule | partial + & – charges Polar molecules dissolve other polar molecules ex: table sugar is polar; it will dissolve in water b/c it's polar just like water Polar molecules can't dissolve non-polar molecules ex, oil is non-polar(doesnt have polar covalent bond |
| hydrophilic | in Latin this means “water loving”. Hydrophilic means it will dissolve in water. The reason it will dissolve in water is because it is polar |
| hydrophobic | in Latin this means “water hating”. Hydrophobic means it will not dissolve in water. The reason it will not dissolve in water is because it is non-polar |
| Non polar | results from equal sharing of electrons. Non-polar covalent bonds are the strongest of all bonds. These are found in hydrophobic molecules |
| Hydrogen bonds | forms when a hydrogen atom is attracted to electronegative atom. -do not form molecule. takes place between different molecules .-very weak bonds;biologically important b/c they stabilize three dimensional shape of molecules (such as DNA & proteins) |
| chemical reaction | process where bonds are broken, formed, or rearranged |
| chemical equation | symbolizes events of a chemical reaction |
| reactants | the “ingredients” of a reaction. Are on the left side of the arrow |
| products | the “results” of a reaction. Are on the right side of the arrow Examples of chemical equation NaCl Na+ + Cl- H + H H2 |
| Exergonic reaction | : reaction that releases energy Generic example: AB A + B energy in the reaction above is released when the bond between AB is broken to yield A and B Real example: digestion of nutrient molecules |
| Endergonic reaction | : reaction that uses energy Generic example: C + D CD energy in the reaction above is needed to form the bond between C and D to form CD Real example: growth (such as building muscle tissue) |
| 3 factors influence rate of chemical reaction | 1) higher the concentration of reactants, faster the rate will be 2)Temp: higher the temp, faster the rate 3)catalyst is substance that allows a reaction to occur. When catalyst is present, the reaction is faster Ex catalysts: digestive enzymes |
| There are five types of chemical reactions: | Anabolic, Catabolic, Exchange, Reversible, Oxidation-reduction (Redox) |
| Anabolic: | a synthesis reaction where the products are larger and/or more complex than the reactants. Is a bond forming and endergonic reaction. Generic example: C + D CD Physiological example: growth (such as building muscle tissue) |
| Catabolic: | a decomposition reaction where the products are smaller and/or less complex molecules than the reactants. Is a bond breaking reaction and exergonic reaction. Generic example: AB A + B |
| Exchange: | both anabolic and catabolic reaction at the same time Generic example: AB + CD AD + BC |
| Reversible | : can go on both directions; is written with a double arrow Generic example: C + D CD |
| Oxidation-reduction (Redox): | a special type of exchange reaction were reactants transfer electrons Example: catabolism of glucose for energy |
| acid: | an ionic compound that dissociates into a H+ cation and anion |
| base: | an ionic compound that dissociates into OH- (hydroxyl) anion and a cation |
| salt: | an ionic compound that dissociates into an anion and cation but the anion is not OH- and the cation is not H+ |
| There are three types of solutions: | 1) Acidic solution: has more H+ than OH- 2) Basic solution: has more OH- than H+ 3) Neutral solution: has same amount of OH-and H+ |
| pH: | measure of the amount of H+ ions in solution. The pH determines if the solution is an acid, base, or neutral. In lab, you will measure pH using an instrument called a pH meter |
| pH scale: | a scale from o to 14. pH of 0 to 6.9 is an acid (closer the pH is to 6.9, the weaker the acid is) pH of 7.0 is neutral pH of 7.1 to 14 is a base (closer the pH is to 7.1, the weaker the base is) |
| buffer: | a substance that, when present, prevents drastic changes in pH. When conditions become too acidic, the buffer will absorb H+ ions When conditions become too basic, the buffer will give off H+ ions |
| Inorganic: | a compound that does not contain both C and H. Examples: H2O, NaCl |
| Organic: | a compound that does contain both C and H. Examples of organic compounds are listed below |
| 4 classes of organic compounds: | Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic acids |
| polymer macromolecules | Definition of macromolecule: a very large molecule Definition of polymer: a special type of macromolecule. A polymer is a macromolecule made of smaller, individual units called monomers Organic compounds |
| Carbohydrates | 1) Main function: energy source for living things. energy they provide is chemical energy 3) Elemental composition: (this means which elements they are made of): Contain C, H, and O. The H and O are in a specific ratio: there are two H for every one O |
| Monomers: monosaccharides | Examples of monosaccharide: a) Glucose: main energy source for animal cells b) Fructose: is the main energy source for plant cells; is called fruit sugar c) Galactose d) Deoxyribose & ribose: are part of DNA & RNA |
| disaccharide: | a compound made of two monosaccharides bonded together Examples of disaccharides: 1) Sucrose: is made a glucose and fructose Common: table sugar 2) Lactose: is made of glucose and galactose Common : milk sugar Function: energy |
| oligosaccharide: | a compound made of three or more monosaccharides bonded togethe |
| polysaccharide | a large polymer compound made of many monomers (>50) bonded together There are three main polysaccharides: (are all polymers of glucose) Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen |
| Starch: | found only in plants. Function: stored energy. Starch is the only digestible polysaccharide in our diet |
| Cellulose: | found only in plants. Function: provides support to plant cells. Cellulose is an example of a carbohydrate that does not function as stored energy like other carbs do. Humans cannot digest cellulose in the diet. |
| Glycogen: | found only in animals, specifically in liver cells & muscle cells. Function: stored energy. Glycogen is catabolized to release glucose monomers and the glucose release is used by cells for energy |
| conjugated | they are bonded to another compound Ex 1) Glycolipid: a lipid w/ a carbohydrate. Found in: cell membrane 2) Glycoprotein:a protein w/ a carbohydrate. Found in: cell membrane & composes mucus 3) Proteoglycan:a carbohydrate w/ a protein. Forms gel li |
| Lipids(There are three major classes of lipid polymers) | 1) Diverse group: they vary in structure and function 2) All lipids have one unifying characteristic which is they are hydrophobic. Thus, they contain non-polar bonds 3) Abundance: 18-25% of body mass 4) Elemental composition: C, H, O and some have P |
| Triglycerides: | called "fat" a) Long term energy store: fat stores provide stored energy for the long term. may never use this energy b) Protection: fat protects organs. ex kidneys and eyes are surrounded by a layer of fat c) Insulation: fat keeps the body warm |
| saturated fatty acid: | No double bonds between carbon atoms. Are solid at room temperature. Found in animals. An example is butter. |
| unsaturated fatty acid: | has double bonds between carbon atoms. Are liquid at room temperature. Generally called "oils". Found in plants. An example is vegetable oil. |
| polyunsaturated: | a special type of fatty acid having many double bonds |
| glycogen (a polysaccharide) also functions as stored energy (like triglycerides). | Glycogen is a short term energy store. This is energy your body needs to get through the day or for between meals. The fat stored on a person’s body may never be used for energy in their lifetime. Glycogen, on the other hand, will be used for energy |
| Phospholipids: | Function: Form the cell membrane Monomers: same as triglycerides but contain a phosphate group Has both polar and non-polar regions. Polar region is called the head region and is hydrophilic. Non polar region is called the tail region& is hydrophobic |
| Steroids: | Diverse functions a) Cholesterol (shown in figure below): cholesterol is part of the cell membrane and is important in digestion of fats b) Some hormones like estrogen & testosterone c) Some vitamins like Vitamin D |
| Proteins | Form structure i.e muscles,hair,nails; Communicate:form some hormones i.e insulin; Form enzyme Elemental composition: C,H,O,&N; Monomer:amino acids(20 types);Polar&non-polar bond;Depend on amino acid in protein b/c some amino acid have polar&non-polar |
| dipeptide | compound made of 2 amino acids bonded together |
| tripeptide | compound made of 3 amino acids bonded together |
| polypeptide (protein) | a large polymer compound made of many amino acid monomers |
| denaturation | to disrupt the shape of the protein Can be denatured by: a) pH changes (either too acidic or basic) b) Temperature (either too hot or too cold) |
| Proteins have 4 levels of protein structure. | 1)Primary:specific sequence of amino acids. determined by a gene 2)Secondary: primary structure will then twist&bend. stabilized by H bonds 3)Tertiary: is 3D shape. proteins r specific shape; important b/c must b correct to work;If disrupted, wont work |
| protein complex | protein made of more than 1 polypeptide chain. Quaternary structure is the way the chains are arranged in the complex; Quaternary : Not all proteins have a quarternary level. Only proteins that are part of a protein complex have a quarternary structure |
| enzyme: | a molecule that catalyzes a reaction |
| Definition of catalyze: | to allow a reaction to occur Most enzymes are proteins |
| substrate | : the molecule an enzyme acts on. Enzymes are specific for only one substrate. Example: lactose is the substrate of the lactase enzyme. Lactase breaks the bonds between monomers in lactose; |
| Nucleic Acids | Features: 1) Elemental composition: have C, H, O, N, & P 3) Monomers: called nucleotides Nucleotide is made of: a) a Monosaccharide b) Phosphate c) Nitrogenous base 4) Polar covalent bonds |
| five different nitrogenous bases, so there are five different nucleotides | 1) Adenine (A) 2) Cytosine (C) 3) Guanine (G) 4) Thymine (T) - in DNA only 5) Uracil (U)- in RNA only |
| examples of nucleotide polymers: DNA | Located: nucleus of a cell Structure: double stranded helix 2strands of DNA by complementary base paring nitrogenous bases on each strand Base pair rule A binds w/ T &C binds w/ G Monosaccharide: deoxyribose Contains code produce protein |
| examples of nucleotide polymers: RNA | Located: nucleus and cytoplasm Structure: single stranded Monosaccharide: ribose Function: helps DNA. Interprets DNA's code and helps to produce a protein from it |
| ATP is the abbreviation for: Adenine Tri-Phosphate | modified nucleotide; is different than other nucleotides, b/c it contains 3phosphate groups rather than just 1. Other nucleotides have one phosphate group. Function: is the "energy currency" of the cell. cell need to do work, it uses ATP for energy. |
| Where is the energy in the ATP molecule? | It is in the last two phosphate bonds |
| ATP hydrolysis | catabolism of the phosphate bonds in ATP Reaction: ATP ADP + P Reaction is: catabolic and exergonic |
| ATPase: | enzyme that catalyzes ATP hydrolysis. in reaction ATP ADP + P "P" as a product. P came from ATP. This P is called "inorganic phosphate" The P is very important because |
| phosphorylation | attaching the P (from ATP hydrolysis) to another molecule. The molecule is now said to be phosphorylated. The phosphorylated molecule now has the PE needed to do work |
| ATP synthesis: | formation of ATP Reaction: ADP + P ATP Reaction is: anabolic and endergonic. The energy to needed to make ATP comes from glucose |
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cberrios
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